chapter 3 From Morpheme to Phrase.doc

Lesson 3 From Morpheme to PhraseA grammatical unit: morpheme , word , phrase , clause , sentence .Morpheme 1. What is morpheme?2. Types of morphemes.Word1. What is word?2. Characteristics of word3. Classification of words.Morphology1. What is morphology?2. Two fields of morphology 2.1 Inflectional morphology 2.2 Derivational morphology.Lexical changeMethods of lexical change.MorphemeWhat is morpheme?The smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Types of morphemes Morpheme Free morpheme =free root Bound morphemeBound rootAffix DerivationalInflectionalPrefixSuffixFree vs. Bound morphemesFree morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, eg boy, girl, table, nation.Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, eg -s, -ed, dis-, un-.All monomorphemic words are free morphemes.Polymorphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes are compounds: paymaster, moonwalk, babysit, godfather, sunflower. Rootroot: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity, eg friend as in unfriendliness. Roots may be free: those that can stand by themselves, eg black+board; nation+-al; orbound: those that cannot stand by themselves, eg -ceive in receive, perceive, conceive;remit, submit, permit, commit retain, contain, maintain incur, recur, occur .A few English roots may have both free and bound variants: sleep, slept, child, childrenStem: a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix may be added, eg friend+-s; write+-ing, possibility+-es.Base: a morpheme to which an affix is added.A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added; a form to which a rule of word-formation is applied. Any root or stem can be a base, desirable is a base in undesirable, internation is a base in international.friend root basefriendlyroot/base + suffix baseunfriendlyprefix + base baseunfriendlinessbase + suffix base?AffixAffix: the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Normally divided into :derivational affix and inflectional affix.Derivation: combination of a base and an affix to form a new word, eg friend+-ly friendly.prefix (dis-, un-) and suffix (-en, -ify).infix (feet, goose, geese, abso-bloomingly-lutely)Inflection: grammatical endings, eg plural, tense, comparative, etc.Differences between derivational affix and inflectional affixFirst,inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixesSecond,inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach toThird,that whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depend very often on other factors within the phrase or sentence at stake.WordWhat is a word?A unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. A vague definition. Three senses are involved in defining “word”, none of which is satisfactory to cope with all the situations.Lexical itemA lexical item is an entry in a dictionary. A lexeme WRITE includes all of its grammatical forms:write, writes, writing, wrote, written Identification of words1. Stability: stable linguistic units.chairman, but not *manchair2. Relative uninterruptibility: though we recognize three components in the word disappointment, we cannot pause and add another component in between, as in *disinterestappointment.But we can add another word between words: Paul, (John) and Mary .3. A minimum free form: the smallest unit that can constitute a complete utterance by itself, egIs Jane coming tonight?Possibly.Hi.Wonderful.Classification of wordsa. Variable vs. Invariable Words:Variable words: they may have inflective changes. The same word may have different grammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively constant. write, writes, writing, wrote, written; cat, cats.Invariable words: words which do not inflective endings. since, when, seldom, through, etc.b. Grammatical vs. Lexical Words:Grammatical/Function words: conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns.Lexical/Content words: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs.c. Closed-class vs. Open-class WordsClosed-class words: New members cannot normally be added, eg pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliaries.Open-class words: New members can be added, eg nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.d. Word classWord class: known as Parts of Speech in traditional grammar.Noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, pronoun, conjunction, interjection, article, etc.Some new terms in word class1. Particle: infinitive to, negative not, subordinate units in phrasal verbs “get by”, “look back”, etc.2.Auxiliary: do, haveModal verbs: can, will, may, must, etc.3.Pro-forms: substitutes for other terms.Pronoun: he, she, I, they, everyonePro-adjective: Your car is red. So is his.Pro-verb: He speaks English better than he did.Pro-adverb: He hopes to win and I hope so too.Pro-locative: He went there.4.Determiner: all the articles, demonstratives, and quantifiers that appear before the noun and its modifiers.As many as three determiners may be used in each case and there is a fixed order when there is more than one.1) Predeterminers: all, both; half, one-third, three-quarters ; double, twice, three times ; such, what (exclamative)2) Central determiners: the; this, these, that, those; we, us; you; which, what (relative), what (interrogative); a, another, some, any, no, either, neither; each, enough, much, more, most, less; a few, a little3) Postdeterminers: every; many, several, few, little; one, two, three ; (a) dozen*their all trouble*five the all boys*all this boy*all both girls.MorphologyMorphology: the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components morphemes. purify pur(e) + -ify Verb adj. + -ify a morphological rule amplify, simplify, electrify, falsifyInflectional morphologyInflections (Inflectional morphology)The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflection affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. Number: table/tables, apple/applescar/carsPerson, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talked, open/opens/opening/opened, shout/shouts/shouting/shoutedCase: boy/boys, John/Johns, university/ universitysNominal forms: boys, boysVerb forms: wants, wanted, wantingAdjective/adverb forms: smaller, smallestEach set constitutes a single paradigm, a set of grammatically conditioned forms all derived from a single root or stem. Dervational morphonogyWord formation (Lexical / Dervational morphonogy)The process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. purify pur (e) + -ifyTwo types: Compound and DerivationCompoundingCompound (Compositional type) : Words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form. Relations between lexical words, icecream, sunrise, paperbag Two or more free roots combine to make a new word.Noun compounds: daybreak, playboy, haircut, windmillVerb compounds: brainstorm, lipread, babysitAdjective compounds: gray-haired, insect-eating, dutyfreePreposition compounds: into, throughoutEndocentric & exocentricEndocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; egself-control: a kind of controlarmchair: a kind of chairExocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, egscarecrow: not a kind of crowbreakneck: not a kind of neckWritten forms of compoundsSolid: blackboard, teapot, bodyguardHyphenated: wedding-ring, wave-lengthOpen: coffee table, washing machineFree variation: businessman, business-man, business manwinebottle, wine-bottle, wine bottleno one, no-one, nooneDerivationDerivation (Derivational type)Relations between roots and affixes un + conscious unconscious, nation + al national, national + ize nationalize, nationalize + ation nationalizationClass-changing:NV: lengthen, hospitalize, discardNA: friendly, delightful, speechlessVN: worker, employee, inhabitantVA: acceptable, adorableAN: rapidness, rapidityAV: deafen, sweetenAdjAdv: exactly, quicklyClass-preserving:NN: nonsmoker, ex-wife, bookletVV: disobey, unfastenAA: grayish, irrelevantLexical changeMostly brand names: Kodak, Coke, nylon, Band-aid, Xerox, LycraBlendingtransfer+resistortransistorsmoke+fogsmogmotorist+hotelmotelbreakfast+lunchbrunchmodulator+demodulatormodemdance+exercisedancerciseadvertisement+editorialadvertorialeducation+entertainmentedutainmentinformation+commercialinfomercialBack-formationdiagnose diagnosis enthuse enthusiasm laze lazyliaise liaison reminisce reminiscence statistic statistics televise workedbeseech: besought beseechedslay: slew slayed?go: went goed?BorrowingFrench: administration, parliament, public, court, crime, judge, army, enemy, officer, peace, soldier, war, faith, religion, coat, costume, dress, fashion, jewel, dinner, feast, fry, roast, supper, toast, customer, money, price, art, college, music, poet, prose, story, studyLatin: admit, client, conviction, discuss, equal, index, library, medicine, minorGreek: catastrophe, cosmos, criterion, idiosyncrasySpanish and Portuguese: banana, barbecue, cafeteria, cargo, chocolate, cigar, cocaine, cockroach, cocoa, guitar, mosquito, negro, potato, tank, tobacc