新编简明英语语言学教程-戴伟栋版

1、新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版第 1 章 导言本章要点：The definition and main branches of linguistics study 语言学的定义和研究范围Important distinction in Linguistic语言学的一些重要区分The definition and the design features of language语言的定义和识别特征Function of language 语言的功能.、4 A _p-Z t_-本章考点：语言学考点：语言学的定义，语言学中几组重要的区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支及各自研究

2、范畴；宏观语言及应用语言学的主要拄只及各自的研究范畴。语言的考点：语言的定义；语言的识别特征（任意性，能产性，二重性，移位性，文化传递性）；语言的功能1,The definition of linguistics语言的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language（based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to general theory of language struct

3、ure）.The scope of linguistics 语言学的范围A：micro-linguisticsPhonetics （语音学）: the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication.Phonology （音系学）: the study of how sounds put together and used toconvey meaning in communication.（ 语音分布和排列的规则及音节的形式）Morphology （形态学）: the study of the way in which the sym

4、bols are arrangedand combined to form words.Syntax （句法学）: the study of rules in the combination of words to formgrammatically permissible sentences in language.Semantics （语义学）: the study of meaning .Pragmatics （语用学）: the study of the meaning in the context of language use.B ：macro-linguisticsSocioli

5、nguistics : the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with the society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics : the study of language and its relation with psychology .语言学中的重要区分Applied linguistics : the study of application of language to the solution of practical problems

6、. Narrowly it is the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. Some important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive vs Prescriptive描写式与规定式Descriptive : if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the langu

7、age people actually use.Prescriptive : if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “ correct and standard ” behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what should t hey say and what they should not say, it is said to be Prescriptive.Synchronic vs Diachronic共时性和历时性Synchronic: the descript

8、ion of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.Speech vs writing 言语和文学These are major media of communication.Langue vs parole 语言与言语（Saussure 索尔）Langue: refers to the abstract linguist

9、ic system shared by the all the members of a speech community.Parole: refers to the realization of language in actual use.Competence vs performance语言能力和语言应用（Chomsky 乔姆斯基）Competence: refers to a userunds erlying knowledgeabout the system of therules.Performance: refers to the actual use in concrete s

10、ituations.乔姆斯基和索绪尔的区别：索绪尔采用的是社会学的观点，他的语言观念是社会惯例性的。乔姆斯基从心理学角度看待语言，对他而言，语言能力是每个个体的大脑特征。E: Traditional Grammar vs modern linguistics传统语法与现代语言学Saussure 的 Course in General Linguistics 标志着现代语言学的开端。区别：语言学是descriptive, 传统的语法是prescriptive.现代语言学认为口头语是基本的，而不是书面语。现代语言学并不强迫进入一个拉丁语为基础的框架。The definition of langua

11、ge语言的定义Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.The design features of language语言的识别特征The design features of human language can be called design features which distinguish it from animal language system.A ： Arbitrariness 任意性There is no logical connection between m

12、eaning and sounds .B ： Productivity 能产性It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users . This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.C：Duality 二重性Two levels: At the lower or th

13、e basic level is astructure of sounds, which aremeaningless by themselves. At higher level, the sounds of language can be regrouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning.D ： Displacement 移位性Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imainged mat

14、ters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places.E ：Cultural transmission 文化传递Language is culturally transmitted.F：Interchangeability 互换性Refers to man can both produce or receive the massages.Functions of language 语言的功能A ： main functionsDescriptive function（ 描述 ）: refers to convey factual

15、information, which can be stated or denied , and even verified .Expressive function（ 表达 ）: refers to emotive or attitudinal function, convey information about user s feelirnegfesr,epnces, prejudice, and values.Social function（ 社 会 ）: refers to interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain

16、 social relations between people.Jakobson 将语言功能划分六大类：emotive, conative（ 意动 ）, referential（ 指向 ）,poetic（ 娱乐 ）, phatic communication（ 寒暄 ）, and matalinguistic（ 元语言 ）.B ： macrofunctionsIdeational （概念 ）: It is to organize the speaker s or writer s experience ofthe real or imaginary world.Interpersonal （

17、人际 ）: It is to indicate, establish, or maintain social relationships between people.Textual : It is to organize the written or spoken texts in a coherent manner, and fit the particular situation in which they are used.注意知识点：1.Onomatopoeic words（ 拟声词 ） can NOT show arbitrary nature of language.（拟声词并不

18、能表示语言的任意性，有些拟声词和所表达的事物是有联系的。）聋哑人所使用的语言也是语言。语言的改变并不是任意的，而是遵循社会规律的。语言是在人类出现一段时间后出现的。第 2 章 音位学本章要点：Speech organs 心令 发音器官Distinction, classification and the criteria of description between constants and vowels辅音和元音的区别、分类及描写规则Phonemes and allophones音位和音位变体Phonological rule and distinctive features 音系规则和区

19、别特征Syllable structure, stress and intonation音节结构、重音和语调I .、4 A _p-Z t_-本章考点：语音学：语音学的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义、发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语元音的定义和分类、基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记；严式标音法和宽式标音法。音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的区别；音素，音位，音位变体最小对立体，自由变体的定义；自由变体；音位对立分布与互补分布；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音(词重音，句子重音)；音高和音调。本章内容索引：The phonic medium of languagePh

20、onetics 语音学(1)The definition of phonetics(2)Three research fields(3)Organs of speech(4)Voiceless sounds(5)Voiced sounds(6)Orthographic representations of speech sounds broad and narrow transcriptions (7)Classification of English speech soundsDefinitionClassification of English consonantsClassificati

21、on of English vowelsPhonologyRelationship between phonology and phoneticsPhone, phonmeAllophoneSome rules in phonologySequential rulesAssimilation ruleDeletion ruleSupra-segmental features: stress, tone, intonationstresstoneintonationThe phonic medium of languagePhonetics 语音学（1）The definition of pho

22、neticsPhonetics: is defined as the study of the phonic medium of English language. It concerns with the sounds that occur in the world languages.（2）Three research fields 三大研究领域考点名词解释Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学: the study of the production of speechsounds.Acoustic phonetics 声学语音学: the study of physi

23、cal properties （ 特征 ）ofspeech sounds.Perceptual phonetics 感知语音学: refers to the perception of speech sounds.（3）Organs of speechVocal organs: lungs, trachea（ 气管 ）, throat, nose, and mouth.Voiceless sounds 清音The sound produced without causing the vibration of the vocal cords（ 声带 ）.Voiced sounds 浊音The s

24、ound produced with causing the vibration of the vocal cords（ 声带 ）.Orthographic representations of speech sounds broad and narrow transcriptions语音正字表 宽式和严式标音Broad transcriptions: transcription with the letter symbols only（一般用于词典和教学 ）Narrow transcriptions: transcription with letter-symbols together wi

25、th the diacritics（ 变音符号）. （语言学家在语言研究中使用）IPA: International Phonetic Alphabet （ 国际音标） 产生于 19 世纪末。（7）Classification of English speech sounds 语音的分类DefinitionConsonants: sounds are produced by constricting the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede or completely shut off the flow of air in the ora

26、l cavity.Vowels: sounds produced without obstruction, so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air in the oral cavity.Classification of English consonantsin terms of the manners of articulation（ 发音方式）:Stops（ 爆破音 ）: pb td kg 6Fricatives（摩擦音）：/f/v/ 0 / /e/ /s/z/2 / ?/h/r/ 8Affricatives（ 塞擦音 ）: /t ?

27、/ /d ?/Liquids（ 清音 ）: /l/ /r/Nasals（鼻音）:/m,n, 打 /Glides（ 滑音 ）: /w j/in terms of place of articulation（ 发音部位）bilabials（ 双唇音 ）: /p b m w/labiodentals（ 唇齿音 ）: /f v/dentals（齿音）:/e0 /alveolars（齿昔艮音）:/t d n l r s/ 6 palatals（腭音）:/j ? t? d / 5 velars（软力粤音）:/k g 刀/ glottal（喉音）：/h/Classification of English v

28、owelsthe position of the tone in mouth: front, central, back,the openness of the mouth: closed semi-closed semi-open and open.the shape of the lips: rounded and unroundedor long and shortthe length of the vowels: tense and laxCtoieOpenCentidlBdikFrontseml-open3. Phonology Relationship between phonol

29、ogy and phoneticsSimilarity: Both concerned with the speech sounds.Differences: Approach and Focus.Phonetics: general nature, it is interested in all human languages.Phonology: how speech sounds form patterns and how sounds convey meanings.Phone, Phoneme 考点Phone: It is a basic unit of phonetic study

30、, a minimal sound segment that human speech can produce. But does not necessarily distinguish meaning.Phoneme: It is a basic unit of phonological study. It is an abstract collection of phonetic features which can distinguish meaning.（3）Allophone:The different realizations of the same phoneme in diff

31、erent phoneticenvironment are called allophones. （同一个音位在不同的语音环境中的实现方式被称为音位的音位变体）complementary distribution: when two or more allophones of the same phoneme do not distinguish meaning and occur in different phonetic environments, then the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution.（当同一个音

32、位的两个或两个以上的音位变体不区别意义，并且出现在不同的语音环境中，那么他们被称作处于互补分布）Free variation: 如果两个音素出现在同一个相同的语音环境中，并不区别意义，即用一个音素去替换另一个音素不产生新词，仅仅产生同一个词的不同读音。那么这两个音素就可被视为自由变体。Phonemic contrast: 语音相似的音如果是区别性音位，那么可以说他们形成了一个音位对立。如“kf口 理cut和gut是两个不同的音位，这两个词除了出现在同一位置上的一个音外，其余的音都一样，因此这两个词就构成了最小对立体minimal pairs 。音位对立指的是能够造成意义差别的语音差别，比如ma

33、te 和 late， 每一个单词的第一个辅音都能造成音位差别，因此形成音位对立。最小对立体就是两个对立的音位只有一个语音特征不同，其他语音特征都相同。比如pate 和 bate 中的 p 和 b ，都是辅音、都是爆破音、都是双唇音，但有一点不一样，前者是清辅音，后者是浊辅音。相反， m 和 p 就不能形成最小对立体，因为它们虽然都是辅音、都是唇音，但至少有两个语音特征不同：除了清浊不同外，一个是鼻音，一个是爆破音。Some rules in phonology 音位学的一些规则the sequential rulesThere are rules to govern the combinati

34、on of sounds in a particular language, andthese rules are called sequential rules. 某一特定语言的语言模式是受规则支配的，这就叫做序列规则。例如：如果一个单词的以L 开头，那后面接的必须是元音。the assimilation rule 同化规则同化指一个音具有了临近音的一部分或者全部特征的这一过程，包括鼻化，齿化， 鄂化。 同化规则通过“拷贝 ”序列音位的一个特征来将一个音同化为另一个，从而使两个音相似。相邻近的同化多半是由发音或者生理过程引起的。我们说话时，倾向于增加发音的舒适度，这种懒惰的倾向可能会被规律化

35、，作为语言的规则。例如： I: 在 bean green team 单词中，I: 会被鼻音化。deletion rule 省略规则省略规则告诉我们在什么时候省略一个语音，虽然这个音在正字法上是仍有体现。例如：g 在单词 sign ， design 中是不发音的，但在完整的signature 和 designation 中的 g 是发音的。超切分特征：重音，音调，. supra-segmental features: stress, tone and intonation 语调A: 单词和句子的重音，重音可以区分意义。digest n. 摘要 digest v. 消化Stress refers

36、to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.音调是由声带vocal cord 的不同震动引起的。语调涉及出现的升降模式，每个模式都应用于相对一致的意义。注意点：Speech is more basic than writing 的原因：linguistic evolution view, speech is prior to writing.in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing (amount of information conveye

37、d)native speakers acquire their mother tongue by speech.spoken language reveal more true features of human speech.phone 与 phoneme 区别A phone is phonetic unit or segment, the speech sound we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.A phoneme is not a particular sound, which is r

38、epresented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.Allophones: clear l and dark l are allophones of the phoneme l.cardinal vowels 基本元音英国音位学家Daniel JonesChapter 5 SemanticsDefinition命名论 The naming theoryProposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato . According to this theory, the l

39、inguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things. ( 缺点：仅限于名词)意念论 The conceptualist view Ogden and RichardsIt holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and wha

40、t it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediationofconcepts in the mind.语境论 ConceptualismIt s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts . Here are two kinds of context: the situational and the lingu

41、istic context.行为主义论BehaviorismIt refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the” situation inwhich the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer ” T.his theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response .Lexical meaning:Sen

42、se : it is concerned with inherent meaning of linguistic form; it is the collection of all features of linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.Reference : it means the linguistic form refers to the real, physical world . It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and

43、 the non-linguistic world of experience.Main sense relations.同义词SynonymyIt refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms.Dialectal synonyms synonyms used in different regional dialects （方言）British AmericaAutumfallFlatapartment

44、Stylisticsynonyms-Synonyms differing in style （文体）Old man daddy father male parent（3）Synonyms that different in their emotive or evaluative meaning （情感）Collaborator VS AccompliceCollocational synonyms （搭配）Accuse VS Charge （accuse of; charge WithRotten tomatoes VS Addled eggsSemantically different sy

45、nonyms （语义）Amaze VS Astound. 多义词 PolysemyIt refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning.Ball: 1, a round object used in game. 2. a large formal social event at which people dance.同音（形 ）异义 HomonymyIt refers to the phenomenon that wo

46、rds have different meanings have the same form, i.e, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.Homophones同音异义It refers to two words are identical in sound. e.g. rain/reign.Homographs同形异义It refers to two words are identical in form .e.g. tear v./tear n.Complete homonyms 同形同音It re

47、fers to words that are both identical in sound and spelling. e.g. tear v./tear n. 上下义关系HyponymyIt refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are call

48、ed its hyponyms.Superordinate: animalSubordinate: cat, dog, tiger, lion, wolf, elephant, fox, bear,.反义词AntonymyIt s the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension.gradable: 等级反义词old-youngcomplementary ：互补反义词male-femalerelational: 关系 father-son buy-sellSentence sense relations:X is

49、synonymous with Y （同义）Eg. He is a bachelor all his life.He never married all his life.X is inconsistent with Y （不一致）Eg. John is marriedJohn is a bachelor.X entails Y （附属）Eg. He has been to France.He has been to Europe.X presuppose Y （ Y 是 X 的先决条件）Eg. John s bike needs reparing.John has a bike.X is a

50、 contradiction （ X 是一个矛盾句）Eg. My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.X is semantically anomalous.（语义异常）Eg. The table has bad intensions.Analysis of meaningComponential Analysis 成分分析法 分析词汇抽象意义It as way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning . This approach is based upon

51、 the belief that meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features .Eg. Man= Adult+Male+Animate+HumanPredication Analysis 述谓结构分析（由 British Linguist G.Leech 提出 ）It s a new approach for sentential meaning analysis. Predication is usually considered an important commo

52、n category shared by propositions, questions, commands ect. （通过对论元 argument 和谓语 predicate 的分析， 达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种.）先设前提PresuppositionIt s a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B.蕴涵 EntailmentEntailment can be illustrated by the following tow sentences in which sentence A ent

53、ails sentence B.Mark married a blonde heiress.Mark married a blonde.第 6 章 pragmatics本章要点：speech act theory言语行为的理论cooperative principle and its maxins合作原则及其准则Gricean theory of conventional implicature格莱斯会话含义理论I .、4 A _p-Z t_-本章考点：语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（发话行为、行事行为和取效行为）； 合作原则。实例分析言语行为、合作原则的违反和会

54、话含义。本章内容索引： PragmaticsDefinitionPragmatics & semanticsContextSentence meaning vs utterance meaningSpeech act theoryAustin s model of speech actsSearl s classification of speech actsIndirect speech actsPrinciple of conversionCooperative principle and its maxinsViolation of the maxinsConversational im

55、plicatureDefinitionCharacteristics of conversational implicativeCalculabilityCancellabilityNon-detachabilityNon-conventionalityCross-cultural pragmatics failure1 PragmaticsDefinitionIt is the study of speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Pragmatics & semanticsIf th

56、e context was taken into the study of meaning, then the study calls pragmatics.ContextDefinition:It is generally considered as the knowledge that shared by the speaker and hearer.Significance:It determines the speaker usse of language and the hearer insterpretation of what is said to him. With conte

57、xt, the communication would achieve satisfactory result.Sentence meaning vs Utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义Sentence meaning: abstract and de-contextualized .Utterance meaning: concrete and context dependent , and based on sentence meaning.2Speech act theoryAustin s model of speech actsAn locutionary act

58、（ 言内行为）： an act of uttering words, phrases, clauses.Literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.An illocutionary act（ 言外行为）： an act of expressing the speakerintentions .An perlocutionary act（ 言后行为）： an act of performed by or resulting fromsaying something; the consequence or change bro

59、ught about by the utterance;Searl 潴尔）classification of speech actsRepresentatives （阐述类）: stating or describing , saying something what thespeaker believes to be true . 陈述，相信，发誓Eg: I swear I have never seen the manbefore.directives（指令类）： Trying to get the hearer to do something.advise ， ask， beseech，

60、 command ， demand ， order ， request ， tell ， urge 。Eg： open the door!Commissives（承诺类）：committing the speaker himself to some future courseof mit ， consent ， guarantee ， offer ， pledge ， promise ， refuse ， threaten 。Eg： I promise to come!Expressives（表达类）： expressing the feeling or attitude towards an