新编简明英语语言学教程教学大纲

J?NewConciseCourseonLinguistics

forStudentscf^ngRsfi

新编简明英语语言学教程

教学提纲

Chapter1Introduction

1.1Whatislinguistics

1.1.1Definition

Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage

Nature、

Structure

Acquisition，oflanguage

Origin

_thought

RelationbetweenlanguageandJlogic

_culture

•ScientificStudy:

Data(focts)collectedandobserved।generalizationsmade>

hypothesesformulated।>theoryconstructed

•Relationbetweentheoryanddata:dialecticalcomplementation:Atheorywithout

thesupportofdatacanhardlyclaimvalidity;anddatawithoutbeingexplainedby

sometheoryremainamuddledmassofthings.

1.1.2Thescopeoflinguistics:

Phonetics:studiesspeechsounds,includingtheproductionofspeech

sounds,thatishowspeechsoundsareactuallymade,transmittedand

received,thesoundsofspeech,thedescriptionandclassificationofspeech

sounds,wordsandconnectedspeech,etc.

Phonology:studiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,and

sequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.Itdealswiththe

soundsystemofalanguagebytreatingphonemeasthepointofdeparture.

Morphology:isconcernedwiththeinternalorganizationofwords.Itdeals

withtheminimalunitsofmeaning一morphemesandword-formation

processes.

Syntax:isaboutprinciplesofformingandunderstandingcorrectEnglish

sentences.

Semantics:examineshowmeaningisencodedinalanguage.

Pragmatics:isthestudyofmeaningincontext.Itdealswithparticular

utterancesinparticularsituationandisespeciallyconcernedwiththe

variouswaysinwhichthemanysocialcontestsoflanguageperformance

caninfluenceinterpretation.

Theuseoflinguistics:

•AppliedLinguistics

•Sociolinguistics

•Anthropologicallinguistics

•Psycholinguistics

•Neurolinguistics

•Stylisticlinguistics/Linguisticstylistics

•Computationallinguistics

•Mathematicallinguistics

•Corpuslinguistics

MajorBranchesofLinguistics&Macro-Linguistics

Anthropological

Linguistics

Sociolinguistics

AppliedLinguistics

1.1.3Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics

Descriptivevs.prescriptive

1.1..3.2Synchronicvs.diachronic

兵(soldier)

1.短兵相接：closecombatwith

weapons

Linguistics)・

2.：talkaboutwarfareon

paper

3.官兵一致：unitybetweenofficers

andsoldiers

4.兵临城下：Theattackingarmy

hasreachedthecitygate.

Speechandwriting

Langueandparole

Sociological,socialproduct,abstract,specific,naturallyoccurringevent,

notactuallyspoken,relativelystablesubjecttopersonalandsituational

systematicconstraints

Competenceandperformance

Psychological,propertyofthemindactualrealizationoftheknowledge;

ofeachindividual,knowledgeof

rulesofthelanguage;

“KNOW”“DO”

Traditionalgrammarandmodernlinguistics

1)prescriptivedescriptive

2)importanceofwrittenlanguagespokenlanguageasprimary

3)forcedlanguageintoaLatin-baseddoesn'tforcelanguageintoa

frameworkLatin-basedframework

1.2Whatislanguage

1.2.1Definitionoflanguage

Sapir

Hall

Chomsky

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancomtnunication,

whichisdouble-structured,changeable,andcreative.

L2.2Designfeatures

1.Arbitrariness

Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Butlanguageis

notentirearbitrary,e.g.,onomatopoeicwordsrumble,crash,banginEnglish.

Compoundwords,e.g.,photo,copyandphotocopy

2.Productivity(/creativity)

Heboughtabookwhichwaswrittenbyateacherwhotaughtinaschool

whichwasknownforitsgraduateswho...

Thisisthedogthatchasedthecatthatkilledtheratthatatethemaltthatlay

inthehousethatJohnbuilt,

3.Duality:doublestructure=doublearticulation(双重陈述)

Twolevelsofstructures■—soundstructurevsmeaningstructure

4.Displacement:Humanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,events

andconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentof

communication.

5.Culturaltransmission

1.2.3Functionsoflanguage

1.Descriptivefunction---cognitive/referential/propositionalfunction---the

primaryfunctionoflanguage---conveyfactualinformation,whichcanbe

assertedordenied,orinsomecasesevenverified,e.g.

TheSichuanearthquakeisthemostseriousoneChinahaseversuffered.

2.Expressivefunction--emotive//attitudinalfunction--suppliesinformation

abouttheuser'sfeelings,preferences,prejudices,andvalues,e.g.

IwillnevergocampingwiththeSimpsonsagain.

3.Socialfunction-interpersonalfunction-一servetoestablishandmaintain

socialrelationsbetweenpeople,e.g.

HowcanIhelpyou,Sir?

RomanJakobson,Russian-bornlinguist,identifiessixelementsofaspeech

eventandrelateseachoneofthemtoonespecificlanguagefunction:

•Emotive（'情感）--addresserTheaddresserexpresseshisattitudetothetopic

orsituationofcommunication,e.g.Ihatewhatevertheyareplanningforme!

•Conative（增强）--addresseeTheaddresseraimstoinfluencetheaddressee's

courseofactionorwaysofthinking,e.g.Whynotgoandseeanotherdoctor?

•Referential（所指/参考）一contextTheaddresserconveysamessageor

information,e.g.AsfarasIknow,theearth\resourcesarebeing

astonishinglywasted.

•Poetic（诗情画意）一messageTheaddresseruseslanguagefbrthesole

purposeofdisplayingthebeautyoflanguageitselfe.g.poetry

•Phaticcommunion（交际/寒暄/应酬）一contactTheaddressertriesto

establishormaintaingoodinterpersonalrelationshipswiththeaddressee,e.g.

Hi!Howareyouthismorning?

•Metalinguistic（元语言）■一codeTheaddresseruseslanguagetomakeclear

themeaningoflanguageitself,e.g.Letmetellyouwhatthe

word“anorexia“means.

M.A.KHalliday.Britishlinguist,foundintheearly1970sthatchildlanguage

performedsevenbasicfunctionsandthereisclosecorrespondencebetweenlanguage

formandfunction.Butasachildgrewintoanadultthesevenfunctionsaregradually

replacedbyamoreabstract,butalsosimplersystemoffunctions.Thissystem

containsthreemacrofunctions■一theideational,theinterpersonal,andthetextual.

•Ideational（概念功能）--organizesthespeakerorwriter'sexperienceofthe

realorimaginaryworld-closetothedescriptivefunction,butbroader

becauseitalsoincludestheexpressionofthespeaker'sattitude,evaluation,

hisfeelingsandemotions.

•Interpersonal(人际功能)■—indicates,establishes,ormaintainssocial

relationshipsbetweenpeople,expressesthespeaker'sroleinthespeech

situation,hiscommitmentandassessmentofthesocialrelationshipbetween

theaddresseeandhimself.

•Textual(语篇功能)--organizeswrittenorspokentextsinsuchamanner

thattheyarecoherentwithinthemselvesandfittheparticularsituationin

whichtheyareused

Chapter2Phonology

2.1Thephonicmediumoflanguage：Twomedia--Speechandwriting

2.2Phonetics

2.2.1Whatisphonetics?

Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage.Itis

concernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld'slanguages

•Scopeofphonetics:

•Articulatoryphonetics:articulationofthespeechsounds

•Acousticphonetics:physicalpropertyandtransmissionofthespeechsounds

•Auditoryphonetics:perception(andreception)ofthespeechsounds

2.2.2Organsofspeech(Speech/Vocalorgans)(/Speechmechanisms)

Lungs

(Source：MacMahon.199O：7)

1.Theinitiatoroftheairstreams:lungs,trachea(windpipe)

2.Theproducerofvoice:vocalcords(/folds):membranes

3.Threeresonatingcavities

1)Pharyngealcavity(throat):pharynx,larynx,epiglottis,oesoghagus

2)Oralcavity:lips,teeth,teeth(/alveolar)ridge=alveolus,hardpalate,soft

palate(/velum),uvula

Tongue:tip,blade,front,back

3)Nasalcavity(nose)

2.2.3Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds-broadtranscription

vsnarrowtranscription

IPA(InternationalPhoneticAssociation)

(InternationalPhoneticAlphabet)

Diacriticse.g.leafplay[plei],build[biId]help[help]

pit[phit](aspirated),spit[spit](unaspirated),leap[li:p](unreleased)

Broadtranscription

Narrowtranscription

2.2.4ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds:

Differencebetweenvowelsandconsonants:Inproducingavoweltheair

streamcomingformthelungsmeetswithnoobstructionwhatsoever,whereas

intheproductionofconsonantstheairstreamisobstructedinonewayor

another.

，Front:[i:][i][e][ae]

Monophthongs«Central:[3:][9][A]

、Back:[a：][D：][][u:][u]

fClosing:[ei][ai][Di][9u][au]

DiphthongsCentering:[I9][e9][u9]

MfVoiceless:[p][t][k][ts][tr][tf][f][0][s][J][h]

EConsonants〈

sV<voiced:[b][d][g][dz][dr][d3][v][&][z][3][r][l][m][n][g][w][j]

ClassificationofEnglishConsonants

PlosivesNasalSemi­

AffricatesFricativesLateral

(Stops)stopsvowels

Voiceless[p][t][k][ts][tr][tf][f][0][s][J][h]

Voiced[b][d][g][dz][dr][d3][v][d][z][3][r][1][m][n][g][w][j]

ClassificationofEnglishconsonants:mannerofarticulationandplaceof

articulation(andvoicing)

•Manner:

Stops:[p][b][t][d][k][g]

Fricatives:[f][v][0][&][s][z][f][s][h]

Affricates:[ts][dz][tr][dr][tf][d3]

Liquids:[1][r]

Nasal:[m][n][ij]

Glides:[w][j]

•Place:

Bilabial:[p][b][m][w]

Labiodental:[f][v]

Dental:[0][6]

Alveolar:[t][d][s][z][n][1][r][tr][dr]

Palatal:[J][s][tf][ds][j]

Velar:[k][g][g]

Glottal:[h]

ClassificationofEnglishvowels

CriteriaforclassifyingEnglishvowels:

1.(component(s)ofthevowel:monophthongsanddiphthongs)

2.thepositionofthetongueraising:front,central,andback

3.theopeningofthemouth:close,semi-close,semi-open,open

4.(theheightoftongueraising:high,semi-high,semi-low,low)

5.shapeofthelips:rounded,unrounded

6.thelengthofthevowels:long,short

7.(tensionofthemusclesinvolved:tense,lax)

MonophthongsClosingdiphthongsCenteringdiphthongs

2.3Phonology

2.3.1phonologyandphonetics

2.3.2phone,phoneme,andallophone

Phone:realizationofaphonemeingeneral,aphoneticunitorsegment.The

speechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareall

phones.Aphonedoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedosomedon't.

Traditionallyputinbrackets.

Phoneme:Aphonemeisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitthatisofdistinctive

value.Itdoesn'thaveameaningbutcandistinguishmeaning.Conventionally

placedinslashes（/slants/obliquestrokes）

Allophones:Differentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferent

environments,ORthedifferentrealizations（phones）ofthesamephoneme,e.g.,

peak（/ph/,aspirated送气），speak（/p/,unaspirated不送气），leapOp_1/,unreleased气流

不释放）,keepdown（/p/,unexploded不完全爆破）;]eap（voicedclear/l/浊辅音清晰1）,

play,（voicelessclear/1/清辅音清晰/!/）,teJl（dark/l/含糊1）.

•EnvironmentandDistribution

Theenvironmentofasoundconsistsofwhatprecedesitandwhatfollowsit,e.g.,

theenvironmentofthesound/i/inthesoundsequence/'hasp：/is"Thesoundin

questionisprecededbyaconsonantandfollowedbysilence."Orexpressedby

symbolsasC_#,inwhichCforconsonant,_standsforthesoundinquestion,

andrstandsforsilence.

Generalized,thesound/m/mayhavethepossibleenvironmentsasfollows:

a.miss,meet,more,men:Thesoundinquestionisprecededbysilenceandfollowed

计_Vbyavowel.

Thesoundinquestionisatthebeginningofwords

Thesoundinquestionisusedinitially.

b.home,some,farm,ham:Thesoundinquestionisprecededbyavoweland

V_#followedbysilence.

Thesoundinquestionisattheendofwords

Thesoundinquestionisusedfinally.

c.swimming,army,enemy:Thesoundinquestionisprecededbyavoweland

V_Vfollowedbyavowel.

Thesoundinquestionisbetweentwovowels.

Thesoundinquestionisusedintervocalically.

d.simple,combine,lamp:Thesoundinquestionisprecededbyavoweland

V_Cfollowedbyaconsonant.

Thesoundinquestionisbetweenavowelanda

consonant.

e.smile,smell,smart:Thesoundinquestionisprecededbyaconsonantand

CVfollowedbyavowel.

Thesoundinquestionisbetweenaconsonantanda

vowel.

Thedistributionofasoundconsistsofallthepossibleenvironmentsinwhichitcan

occur.Forexample,thedistributionofthesound/m/isdescribedasabove.

2.3.3Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpair

•Phonemiccontrast:Twodistinctivephonemesformaphonemiccontrast,e.g.,[p]

and[b]in[pit]and[bit],[roup]and[raub].

•Complementarydistribution:Soundsneveroccurinthesamephonetic

environmentareincomplementarydistribution.

1)Phoneticallysimilar:allophonesofthesamephoneme,e.g.,leap[li:p],play

[pleij,tell[tel];peak[phi:k],speak[spi:k],leap[lip]jumpdown[dsAmpdan]

2)Phoneticallydissimilar:differentphonemes,e.g.,hand[haend],sing[sig].

•Minimalpair:Twodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforone

soundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplace(/environment)inthestrings,the

twosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair,e.g.,pill,bill.Ifthere

arethantwoformsinthestrings,e.g.,pillandtill,killanddill,dillandgill,they

areknownasaminimalsetand/p//b//t//k//d3/aredifferentphonemes.Thesameis

trueofvowels,e.g.,inheat,bit,bet,bat,boot,but,bait,biteandboat,/i://i//e//ae//u://A/

/eu/au/ou/aredifferentphonemesinEnglish.

2.3.4Somerulesinphonology

Sequentialrules:rulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage

23.4.2Assimilationrule:therulethatassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeature

ofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimila匚

Nasalizationof/i:/inbeanandgreen;theassimilationof/n/into/g/

injusticeimmortalimperfectillegalirrelevant

inefficientimmoralimpenetrableilliterateirreligious

infirmimmodestimpossibleillegitimateirresistible

inconvenientimmatureimpracticalillegibleirreparable

incomparableimmeasurableimpatientilliberalirrecoverable

23.4.3Deletionrule

signsignature;designdesignation;paradigmparadigmatic

resignresignationphlegmphlegmatic

Intheaboveexamples,thephoneme/g/isdeletedwhenitoccursbeforeafinal

nasalconsonantaccordingtothedeletionrule.

2.3.5Suprasegmentalfeatures—stress,tone,intonation

Stress:wordstressandsentencestress:arelativenotion

23.5.2Tone:pitchvariation,causebythedifferentratesofvibrationofthevocal

cords,whichcandistinguishmeaningintonelanguagessuchasChinese,

butdoesn'tcauseasmuchdifferenceinstresstimelanguagessuchas

English.

2・3・5.3Intonation:aconcurrenttermofpitch,stressandlength.Whenpitch,

stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordin

isolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.

TheEnglishlanguagehasfourbasictypesofintonations:falling,rising,

fall-riseandrise-falltones

Chapter3Morphology

3e1Introduction

Thepartofgrammarthatisconcernedwithwordfermationandword

structure.

Morphology:thestudyoftheinternalstructureofwoodsandtherulesbywhich

wordsarcformed

3.2Openclassandclosedclass

Openclasswords:IntheEnglishlanguage,thecontentwordsuchasnouns

verbs,adjectiveandadverbs,whichmakeupthelargestpartofthevocabulary,and

calledopenclasswords,sincewecanregularlyaddnewwordstotheseclasses.

Closedclasswords:Theothersyntacticcategoriesincluding“grammaticalnor

“functional“words,suchasconjunctions,prepositions,articlesandpronouns,

whichconsistofrelativelyfewwords,arereferredtoasclosedclasswords.

3.3Morphemes—theminimalunitsofmeaning—minimal,meaningful,

grammaticalunits

Morpheme,morphandallomorph

•Morpheme:minimal,meaningful,grammaticalunit

•Morph:realizationofamorphemeingeneral

•Allomorph:differentrealizationofthesamemorpheme

eg,allomorphsofthepluralmorphemeofthenoun:

map-maps/s/

dog-dogs/z/

watch—watches/iz/

mouse-mice/ai/

ox—oxen/n/

tooth一teeth/i:/

sheep-sheep/O/

child—children/an/

•Zeromorph:Azeromorphisamorphwhichdoesn'thaveaformbuthasa

meaning.E.g.sheep_

•Emptymorph:Anemptymorphisamorphwhichhasaformbutdoesn't

haveameaning.E.g.children

Freemorphemeandboundmorpheme

(N.Adj.Adv.V.)(Conj.Prep.Art.Prep.)

Mayconstitutewordsbythemselvescannotstandbythemselves

Canstandbythemselvesaswordsasindividualwords

3.4Analyzingwordstructures

Rootsandaffixes

3.5Derivationalandinflectionalmorphemes

InflectionalDerivational

functionMarkgrammaticalrelations,andneverCreatenewwordsandveryoftencausea

causeachangeingrammaticalclasschangeingrammaticalclass

positionSuffixes,alwaysafterthederivationalPrefixesandsuffixes,alwaysbeforethe

affixesifbotharepresentinflectionalifbotharcpresent

e.g.yThisisabuilding.(derivational)jbigger

LTherearebuildingahouse,(inflectional)Lworker

jTheywereexcited,(derivational)

LTheywereexcitedbythenews,(inflectional)

spoonsfulspoon+full(bothlexicalmorphemes)

Thenountakestheplural.

spoonfulsspoon+ful(lexicalmorpheme+derivationalsuffix)

Inflectionalsuffixshouldgoafteraderivationalsuffix.

3.2.1Inflection—manifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipthroughtheaddition

ofinflectionalaffixes:number,person,finiteness,aspectandcase.

"Plural{S}i

2fornouns<

-Possessive{S}2

’3rdpersonsingularpresentindefinitetense{S.

8inflectionsofthe4forpastform-ed

Englishlanguageverbspastparticiple-ed

Ipresentparticiple-ing

"comparativedegree-er

2foradjectivesY

andadverbssuperlativedegree-est

3.6Morphologicalrulesofwordformation

Morphologicalrules

Productivemorphologicalrules

3.9Wordformation

3.9.1Majorprocessesofword-formation

Compounds28-30%(3.8onp.38)

Whenweformcompounds,thefollowingpointsarenoteworthy:(p.39)

a.Whenthetwowordsareinthesamegrammaticalcategory,thecompoundwill

beinthiscategory.

b.Inmanycases,thetwowordsfallintodifferentcategories.Thentheclassof

thesecondorfinalwordwillbethegraminaticalcategoryofthecompound.

c.Itisoftenthecasethatcompoundshavedifferentstresspatternfromthe

noncompoundedwordsequence.

d.Themeaningofacompoundisnotalwaysthesumofthemeaningsofits

parts.

A.Nouncompounds

N+V,V+N,N+N,Adv+V(outbreak,intake,output,input,Leading

Dragon,

ChinaBear,ChinaWood,PekingPound)

B.Verbcompounds

N+Vbrainwash,lipread,babysit

C.Adj.compounds

N+Ving:peace-loving,fruit-bearing,

N+Ved:man-made,heart-felt,hen-pecked

N+Adj:life-long,world-famous,trust-worthy,noteworthy

Adj+Adj:bitter-sweet,light-blue,deaf-mute

Ving+Adj:steaming/blazinghot,cutting/biting/freezingcold

Adj/Adv+Ving:easygoing,ever-lasting

N+Ned:chicken-hearted,honey-mouthed,paper-backed

Adj+N:full-length,white-collar,red-letter

D.Prepositioncompounds

Into,throughout,without,notwithstanding

Conversion(Functionalshiftp.100)26%

N—V:papei;bottle,butter,vacation,fox(sboutofsth)

Adj—V:dry,wet

Adv—V:up,down

V-N:acatch,afind,areply,acover,acure,apass,aturn,acatch-22,a

must

V—Adjmust:TheManifestooftheCommunistPartyisamustbookforthe

youth.

Adj—N:nativeofNanjing,acommunist,aChristian

Derivation(Affixation)(3.7p.37)30-40%

•WordClasschanged

•WordClassunchanged

3.9.2Minorprocessesofword-formation

3.921Clipping[(7.4.1..2)Clippedwordsp.98|

ad,exam,photo,lab,prof.,phone,plane,flu,mike,bike,fridge,microphone

refrigerator

Blending7.4.13)p.99

Head+tail:motel,brunch,telecast,camcorder,galumph,Chinsumer

Head+head:telex,hi-tech

Head+word:morphophonology,telecommunication

Word+tailnetiquette,netizen,antizen

Initialismp.99

CEO,B2B,IT,CPI,IAD,WTO,BBS,BBC,VOA,PRC,UN,UK,CIA,

FBI,GRE,UFO

3・9.2.4Acronymyp.99

TOEFL,TESOL,IELTS,NATO,APEC,OPEC,UNESCO,FAMILY,

MARLBORO,SARS

Back-formationp.99

Difficult,housekeep,edit,beg,televise,burgle,brainwash,enthuse

3.926Borrowingp.100

3・9.2.7Coinagep.98

Kodak,Xerox,memorystick,digitalcamera^spyware,Taikonaut,mouse

potato,cybercitizen,leadingdragon,Chinabear,Chinawood,Pekingpound,

ungelivable^Chinsumeer^

Chapter4Syntax

4.1Whatissyntax?

Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedto

formsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.

ThewordsyntaxismadeupoftwoGreekmorphemes:synandtax.The

formermeanstogether,andthelattertoarrange,hencetheliteralmeaning

“settingouttogether55or“arrangement”

4.2SyntacticRelation

4.2.1Positional(/sequential/syntagmatic/horizontal/chain/linear)relation/

wordorder—Sequentialarrangementofwordsinasentence

4.2.2Relationofsubstitutability/substitutional(/paradigmatic/vertical/choice)

relation-classesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachother

grammaticallyinthesamesentencestructures

4.2.3Hierarchicalrelation—innerlayeringofasentence

4.3Constructionandconstituent

4.3.1Construction

4.3.2Constituent

Immediateconstituent

Ultimateconstituent

4.3.3Immediateconstituent(IC)analysis:twowaysTreediagramsorBracketing

e.g.,Heputthebeautifulflowersintothevase.

Heboughtaninterestingbookfromthebookstore.

(l)He⑵boughtaninterestingbookfromthebookstore

⑶bought(4)aninterestingbook⑸fromthebookstore

(6)an(7)interestingbook(8)from(9)thebookstore

⑫t/^^bokstore

(10)inter^stingQDfibok

•Phrasemarkers:

•SfNP+VPThearrow“f”isread^consistsof"or“branchesinto”.

•NPfDet+N

•VP—V+NP(/AP/AdvP/PP)

•PPfPrep+NP

Note:Determinersincludea,an,the,my,our,your,his,her,their,some,any,

many,this,that,these,those,etc.

ICanalysis(ImmediateConstituentAnalysis)

Thegirllikedthetoy.

Thegirllikedthetov

Thegirllikedthetoy.

theAtoy.

4・3.3.2LabelledICanalysis

Thegirllikedthetoy.(S)

Thegirl(NP)likedthetoy(VP)

The(Det)girl(N)likcd(V)thetoy(NP)

The(Det)toy(N)

4.3.33Completephrasemarker

NPVP

LittleTomwasunusuallysmart.

4.33.4Partialphrasemarker

NPNP

NPAP

ThegirllikedthistoyLittleTomwasunusuallysmart

Brackets

[[[The][girl]][[liked][[the][toy]]]]

Theboyatetheapple.Tomrunsfast.

[[[The][boy]][[ate][[the][apple]]]]JanereadsEnglish.

Maryisbeautiful.

LabelledBrackets

[S[NP[DetThe][Ngirl]][VP[VUked][NP[Detthe][Ntoy]]]]

[S[NP[DetThe][Nboy]][VP[Vate][NP[Detthe][Nappie]]]]

e.g.，Thegirlputthebookonthedesk.

[S[NP[DetThe][Ngirl]][VP[Vput][NP[Detthe][Nbook]][PP[Prepon][NP[Detthe][Ndesk]]]]]

Example:Mysisterlikesthepictureonthewall.

I.ICanalysis:

Mysisterlikesthepictureonthewall.

Mysister