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Chapter 10: Life Histories and Evolutionary FitnessChapter 10: Life Histories and Evolutionary FitnessTopic: optimal clutch size Difficulty: moderate 1.Which of the following British biologists first placed the clutch size of birds in an evolutionary context? A)J. P. Grime B) Charles Darwin C) David Lack D) A.G. Tansley Answer: CTopic: reproductive life histories Difficulty: moderate 2.A mature female sockeye salmon swims up to 5000 km from her Pacific Ocean feeding ground to the mouth of a coastal river in British Columbia and then another 1000 km upstream to her spawning ground. Once there, she lays thousands of eggs in her single reproductive event. The salmons reproductive life history is referred to as: A)semelparous B) iteroparous C) oddparous D) evenparous E) nonparous Answer: ATopic: reproductive life histories Difficulty: moderate 3.A female African elephant produces a single offspring at intervals of several years, caring for her young for an extended period before reproducing again. The elephants reproductive life history is referred to as: A)semelparous B) iteroparous C) oddparous D) evenparous E) nonparous Answer: BTopic: phenotypic plasticity Difficulty: moderate 4.The larvae of swallowtail butterflies are capable of surviving and growing over a range of temperatures. They exhibit faster growth as the environmental temperature increases. The responsiveness of the larval phenotype to a range of environmental temperatures is referred to as: A)a genotype-environment interaction. D)evolutionary fitness. B)phenotypic plasticity. E)none of the above C)variation in fecundity. Answer: BTopic: phenotypic plasticity Difficulty: moderate 5.Swallowtail butterfly larvae from Alaska and Michigan each exhibit characteristic reaction norms for growth rate with respect to temperature. Although larvae from both populations exhibit increasing growth rate with increasing temperature, larvae from Alaska grow faster at lower temperatures and larvae from Michigan grow faster at higher temperatures. The difference between the two reaction norms is evidence of: A)a genotype-environment interaction. D)evolutionary fitness. B)phenotypic plasticity. E)none of the above. C)variation in fecundity. Answer: ATopic: reciprocal transplant experiments Difficulty: moderate 6.Which of the following was an interesting outcome of the reciprocal transplant experiments carried out by Niewiarowski and Roosenberg on fence lizards? A)Native lizards and transplants from New Jersey performed equally well in Nebraska. B)Nebraska lizards performed equally well in Nebraska and in New Jersey. C)New Jersey lizards performed equally poorly in New Jersey and in Nebraska. D)Each of the above was an interesting outcome of this experiment. Answer: CTopic: reciprocal transplant experiments Difficulty: hard 7.Highbush blueberry plants belonging to a particular species grow in a wide range of environments in North Carolina. Plants growing in acidic bogs are slower growing than plants on fertile, better-drained floodplains. In a reciprocal transplant study, plants from a bog were transplanted to a floodplain and plants from a floodplain were transplanted to a bog. The transplants from the bog performed better in the floodplain, but not as well as plants native to the floodplain. The transplants from the floodplain performed more poorly in the bog, about the same as plants native to the bog. What can we conclude from this experiment about the causes of differences in growth rate between the bog and floodplain populations? A)They are genetically determined. B)They reflect phenotypic plasticity. C)Both of the above conclusions are correct. Answer: CTopic: growth rate and metamorphosis Difficulty: easy 8.Many animals undergo a dramatic metamorphosis from larval to adult (sexually mature) forms. Poorly nourished animals cannot grow as fast as well-nourished animals and therefore do not reach a given mass as quickly as their well-nourished counterparts. If metamorphosis occurs when a specific, minimum body mass is reached, which of the following costs is most likely incurred by a poorly nourished animal? A)longer period of risk prior to reproduction B)reduced reproductive output as an adult Answer: ATopic: growth rate and metamorphosis Difficulty: easy 9.Many animals undergo a dramatic metamorphosis from larval to adult (sexually mature) forms. Poorly nourished animals cannot grow as fast as well-nourished animals and therefore do not reach a given mass as quickly as their well-nourished counterparts. If metamorphosis occurs when a specific, minimum age is reached, which of the following costs is most likely incurred by a poorly nourished animal? A)longer period of risk prior to reproduction B)reduced reproductive output as an adult Answer: BTopic: growth rate and metamorphosis Difficulty: moderate 10.Research on frogs has shown that poorly nourished animals mature in which of the following ways, compared to their well-nourished counterparts? A)at the same size but at a much later age B)at the same age but at a much smaller size C)at a somewhat later age and at a somewhat smaller size Answer: CTopic: growth rate and metamorphosis Difficulty: easy 11.The relationship between age and size at metamorphosis under different feeding regimes is the _ of metamorphosis with respect to age and size. A)evolutionary fitness D)parity B)evolutionary cost E)specialization C)reaction norm Answer: CTopic: life history continua Difficulty: easy 12.The British ecologist J.P. Grime has characterized the relationship between: A)life history traits of animals and conditions of the environment. B)life history traits of plants and conditions of the environment. C)comparative life history traits of animals and plants. Answer: BTopic: life history continua Difficulty: moderate 13.In J.P. Grimes classification of life history traits, a species with a fast potential growth rate, reproduction at a relatively early age, allocation of a small proportion of net production to seeds, and reliance on vegetative spread fits the profile of a: A)stress tolerator. B) ruderal. C) competitor. Answer: CTopic: life histories Difficulty: easy 14.Much of the effort in the study of life histories has been to understand the fitness consequences of changing the allocation of limited time and resources to competing functions.A)true B) falseAnswer: ATopic: optimal clutch size Difficulty: easy 15.When researchers added two young to typical kestrel nests, one result was: A)reduction in survival of chicks from the norm of 98% to 81%. B)increase in survival of chicks from the norm of 81% to 98%. C)no change in the survival rate of chicks. Answer: ATopic: age at first reproduction Difficulty: moderate 16.By breeding at an earlier age, an organism will reap the obvious benefit of increased fecundity at that age. Is there any potential cost associated with breeding at an earlier age? A)There is no cost associated with breeding at an earlier age. B)Yes, there is a cost: reduced survival to older ages. C)Yes, there is a cost: reduced fecundity at older ages. D)Both A and B are reasonable expectations. E)Both B and C are reasonable expectations. Answer: ETopic: age at first reproduction Difficulty: moderate 17.Storm-petrels live 30 to 40 years. Thrushes rarely live beyond 3 to 4 years. Even if you knew nothing more about the life histories of these two species, could you make an educated guess about which species has the longer prereproductive period? A)No, information about maximum age is insufficient background for an educated guess. B)Yes, the longer-lived species (storm-petrel) probably has the longer prereproductive period. C)Yes, the shorter-lived species (thrush) probably has the longer prereproductive period. Answer: BTopic: age at first reproduction Difficulty: moderate 18.For birds, age at maturity: A)varies directly with annual survival rates of adults. B)varies inversely with annual survival rates of adults. C)is unrelated to annual survival rates of adults. Answer: ATopic: investment in reproduction Difficulty: hard 19.Designate adult survival independent of reproduction as S and adult survival directly related to reproduction as SR. For a species with a large ratio of S/SR, what must be true of any increase in fecundity for that increase to confer greater fitness? A)Increase in fecundity must be small relative to the resulting decrease in adult survival. B)Increase in fecundity must be large relative to the resulting decrease in adult survival. C)Increase in fecundity must be about the same as the resulting decrease in adult survival. Answer: BTopic: growth and fecundity Difficulty: hard 20.For fish living a fairly long time (10 or more years), what would you predict to be the optimal allocation of resources to fecundity versus growth? A)high fecundity versus slow growth B)low fecundity versus rapid growth C)equal allocation of resources to fecundity and growth Answer: BTopic: semelparous and iteroparous organisms Difficulty: moderate 21.Although different in almost every imaginable respect, agaves (century plants) resemble sockeye salmon in that both are _. A)hyperparous B) hypoparous C) nonparous D) iteroparous E) semelparous Answer: ETopic: semelparous and iteroparous organisms Difficulty: moderate 22.Agaves and yuccas often grow side by side in desert habitats. Although superficially similar, members of these two groups differ markedly in their life histories. How? A)Agaves are annuals; yuccas are perennials. B)Agaves are perennials; yuccas are annuals. C)Agaves are semelparous; yuccas are iteroparous. D)Agaves are iteroparous; yuccas are semelparous. Answer: CTopic: semelparous and iteroparous organisms Difficulty: moderate 23.One possible explanation of the different life histories of agaves and yuccas is related to: A)differences in acquisition of soil nutrients. B)differences in acquisition of soil moisture. C)differences in acquisition of carbon. D)All of the above are equally plausible explanations. Answer: BTopic: semelparous and iteroparous organisms Difficulty: moderate 24.Bamboos are semelparous organisms. Synchronous breeding in large populations of bamboo may benefit these populations by: A)facilitating wind pollination. C)Both A and B are potential benefits. B)overwhelming seed predators. Answer: CTopic: semelparous and iteroparous organisms Difficulty: moderate 25.Bet hedging has been proposed as an advantage to which of the following life histories? A)iteroparity B) semelparity C) both A and B D) neither A nor B Answer: ATopic: semelparous and iteroparous organisms Difficulty: moderate 26.Lobelia telekii and its relative, L. keniensis, both grow on Mount Kenya in Africa. L. telekii grows on dry rocky slopes that are highly variable in time and space. L. keniensis is found in moist valley bottoms with more stable moisture regimes. Which species is semelparous? A)Lobelia telekii B) Lobelia keniensis Answer: ATopic: senescence Difficulty: moderate 27.All animal species of the same size and physiology have the same maximum longevity.A)true B) falseAnswer: BTopic: senescence Difficulty: moderate 28.Across a wide range of bird and mammal species, the rate of aging is: A)positively related to the baseline mortality experienced by young adults. B)negatively related to the baseline mortality experienced by young adults. C)unrelated to the baseline mortality experienced by young adults. Answer: ATopic: senescence Difficulty: moderate 29.Evidence of senescence in human females is the increased prevalence of birth defects in offspring and of infertility after 30 years of age. A)true B) false Answer: ATopic: senescence Difficulty: moderate 30.Which of the following statements about senescence of organisms is true? A)Mechanisms preventing and repairing damage caused by wear and tear are not under genetic control. B)Prolonging the life span by postponing senescence is unlikely to affect fecundity in the early reproductive years. C)Senescence is an inevitable consequence of wear and tear. Answer: CUse the following to answer questions 31-35:The genus Cassina consists of ten species of mammals that occur on Faraway Island in the central Pacific Ocean, near the equator. These species are closely related and apparently diverged from a common ancestor, much like Darwins finches on the Galapagos Islands. The species of Cassina are quite varied in their sizes and habits; C. minima is the size of a mouse, whereas C. maxima is as large as a draft horse. As part of a research team studying the fauna of Faraway Island, you have undertaken a comparative study of life histories of the various Cassina species. Topic: life history continuum Difficulty: moderate 31.To begin your study of life history in Cassina, you decide to catalog the traits for each species, including development rate, age at sexual maturity, allocation of resources to reproduction, adult mortality rate, and length of life. Before doing so, you postulate that these traits will not vary independently of one another but will instead exhibit correlated changes along a continuum. Characterize the continuum that you anticipate. Answer: For the variety of species under consideration, the traits youve chosen to catalog will be expected to vary along a continuum best characterized as slow to fast. At the slow end will be species with slow development, greater age at sexual maturity, relatively small allocation of resources to reproduction, low adult mortality and long life (exemplified perhaps by C. maxima). These traits will gradually change along the life-history continuum to the fast extreme (exemplified perhaps by C. minima), where species have traits just the opposite of those belonging to the slow species. Topic: age at first reproduction Difficulty: moderate 32.With your catalog complete, your begin a more detailed investigation of life history traits among the various Cassina species. All of these species cease growing when they reach sexual maturity. However, there is considerable variation in age at sexual maturity and life span among the species. What kind of relationship between these two traits do you expect to find? In addition, how do you expect size and age at sexual maturity to vary? Answer: The expected relationship is one in which age at sexual maturity varies in direct proportion to the life span. In other words, the longer a species lives, the longer its prereproductive development. In most cases the species with delayed sexual maturity will also be larger when they reach maturity. Topic: investment in reproduction Difficulty: moderate 33.Closer examination of certain Cassina species reveals interesting patterns. For example, Cassina intermedia and C. normalis are both rat-like members of the genus. Although quite similar in size, the two species differ greatly in their habits and life histories. C. intermedia is a long-lived nocturnal forager in closed forests and suffers relatively low adult mortality. C. normalis forages during daylight hours on open, rocky areas of the island and suffers high adult mortality caused by predation from hawks; its life span is shorter than that of C. intermedia. You havent had a chance yet to determine fecundities of the two species, but you speculate that these fecundities will be quite different. What is your speculation and what is your reasoning behind this speculation? Answer: Cassina normalis is likely to have higher fecundity than C. intermedia. High adult mortality is typically associated with greater fecundity. If adults have a high probability of dying, it is to their advantage to increase their investment in current reproductive output. Conversely, longer-lived species with lower adult mortality rates may jeopardize future reproduction by investing heavily in current reproduction. Topic: optimal clutch size Difficulty: hard 34.You move into a more experimental phase of your studies of Cassina species. You determine that C. intermedia females routinely produce 4 young per litter, in comparison with 10 young per litter in the more fecund C. normalis. You conduct an experiment in which you add 6 newborn C. intermedia (obtained from lab-reared animals) to each of several natural litters of C. intermedia. The C. intermedia females accept the added young and attempt to raise their newly expanded litters of 10 to maturity. What do you expect to be the consequences of your litter supplementation experiments? Explain your answer, citing results of other workers where appropriate. Answer: Litter supplementation could have far-reaching consequences. As predicted by David Lack and borne out by results of numerous experiments in birds, you suspect that litter supplementation will result in poor reproductive success, caused by inability of the female to provide for the additional offspring. Indeed, the artificially supplemented litters may actually produce fewer successful young than the natural litters, as seen in Hogsteds work with magpies. In her attempt to provide for additional young, the female C. intermedia may be in poor condition herself by the end of the breeding season, less likely to survive for subsequent breeding attempts, as seen in experiments by Dijkstra and Dann with European kestrels. Topic: trade-offs in resource allocation Difficulty: hard 35.In your studies of Cassina species of Faraway Island, youve seen numerous examples of trade-offs in life history traits. What fundamental process is responsible for such trade-offs? Use your work with C. intermedia and C. normalis to illustrate your answer. Answer: From an evolutionary perspective, life history traits persist because they contribute to reproductive success and, therefore, evolutionary fitness. Faced with scarce resources, organisms must allocate these resources in ways that optimize fitness. Consider the case of C. intermedia and C. normalis. Emphasis on current reproductive output will compromise future reproductive output. In order to allocate resources to growth and future reproductive output, current reproductive output must be curtailed. In the case of C. normalis, emphasis on current reproductive output pays off, because future reproductive success is unlikely anyway. With a greater expectation of future life, C. intermedia foregoes some current reproduction to increase the likelihood that future reproductive opportunities may be exploited. Topic: life histories Difficulty: moderate 36.One of the remarkable facts of nature is that, on average, each organism produces _ offspring that lives to reproduce. Answer: one Topic: trade-offs in resource allocation Difficulty: easy 37.An individual organism cannot dedicate scarce energy or material resources used for one function to another. In other words, the organism is faced with a problem of _. Answer: allocation Topic: trade-offs in resource allocation Difficulty: easy 38.The set of rules and choices influencing an individuals survival and reproduction at each age is referred to as its _. Answer: life history Topic: trade-offs in resource allocation Difficulty: easy 39.The number of offspring produced per reproductive episode is an individuals _. Answer: fecundity Topic: plant life histories Difficulty: easy 40.In J.P. Grimes comprehensive classification of plant life histories, weedy species are referred to as _. Answer: ruderals Topic: trade-offs between growth and fecundity Difficulty: easy 41.Many plants and invertebrates, plus some lower vertebrates, do not have a characteristic adult size and may continue to grow throughout their adult lives. This condition is referred to as _ growth. Answer: indeterminate Topic: semelparous and iteroparous organisms Difficulty: easy 42.Adult female salmon arrive exhausted at their upstream spawning grounds, convert a large portion of their remaining resources to eggs, then die, in a process of _. Answer: programmed death Topic: semelparous and iteroparous organisms Difficulty: easy 43.Humans are capable of multiple reproductive events through their lifetime and are thus considered _. Answer: iteroparous Topic: semelparous and iteroparous organisms Difficulty: easy 44.The spread of bamboos by vegetative or asexual reproduction is also referred to as _ growth. Answer: clonal Topic: senescence Difficulty: easy 45.Virtually all animals, humans included, exhibit a deterioration of physiological function, or _, with increasing age. Answer: senescence Topic: optimal clutch size Difficulty: moderate 46.Tropical songbirds tend to have nests with fewer eggs than birds nesting at higher latitudes. David Lack of Oxford University first placed this observation in a life-history context. What were the key concepts elaborated by David Lack in this regard? Answer: Lack recognized that life-history traits contribute to reproductive success and thus to evolutionary fitness. He also proposed that life-history traits are subject to natural selection, varying in predictable ways with environmental factors and constraints. Finally, he hypothesized that clutch size was commensurate with availability of resources (food, in this case) and that experimental increase of clutch size would result in poor reproductive success. Topic: number versus size of offspring Difficulty: hard 47.Given a fixed allocation of resources to reproduction, there are still many possible trade-offs between the size and number of offspring produced. Consider seed-producing trees and discuss conditions that might favor production of few, relatively large seeds versus conditions that might favor production of many small seeds. Answer: Trees of closed forests with little opportunity to disperse seeds into newly created habitats might be expected to produce relatively few large seeds. Each seed could be supplied with substantial reserves of food and nutrients, giving the developing seedling an opportunity to compete successfully for limited resources. Trees of open forests with opportunities to disperse seeds into newly created habitats might be expected to produce larger numbers of lighter seeds. Such seeds might be more readily dispersed by wind, water, or small animals into open habitats. The larger numbers of seeds would also increase the chances that some seeds would land in favorable sites, and opportunities for rapid population expansion could be readily exploited. Topic: genotype-environment interaction Difficulty: hard 48.What is a genotype-environment interaction? Please include a discussion of the reaction norm in your answer. Answer: Each genotype responds in a particular way to variations in the environment, resulting in the phenotypic plastic
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