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Chapter 23: BiodiversityChapter 23: BiodiversityTopic: latitudinal gradients in species. Difficulty: easy 1.There are 22 species of snakes in Canada and 126 species in the United States. Approximately how many do you think there are in Mexico? A)3 B) 30 C) 300 Answer: CTopic: determinants of species diversity Difficulty: easy 2.In the early part of the twentieth century, which of the following two views about the determination of diversity was more popular? A)Diversity increases without limit over time. B)Diversity reaches an equilibrium, with factors adding species balanced by factors removing species. Answer: ATopic: determinants of species diversity Difficulty: moderate 3.An apparent departure from the rule that species diversity increases toward lower latitudes is the decrease in species of mammals as one moves southward on the peninsula of Baja California. What factor might account for this southward decline? A)increased intensity of competition B)increased intensity of predation C)increased dispersal distance from the continental source of species Answer: CTopic: energy-diversity hypothesis Difficulty: moderate 4.The energy-diversity hypothesis links diversity with potential evapotranspiration, which is _. A)the amount of water actually evaporated from the soil and transpired by plants B)the amount of water that could be evaporated from the soil and transpired by plants, given the average temperature and humidity C)the amount of precipitation minus the amount of water actually evaporated from the soil and transpired by plants Answer: BTopic: regional diversity Difficulty: hard 5.From the perspective of diversity, within a region, distributions of species should reflect: A)selection of suitable habitats and interactions with other species. B)ability to disperse to a particular locality. C)both A and B. Answer: ATopic: beta diversity Difficulty: moderate 6.As beta diversity increases, one should generally expect to find the species composition of different habitats becoming: A)more similar. B) more different. C) about the same. Answer: BTopic: niche relationships Difficulty: moderate 7.How could the number of coexisting species within a community be increased? A)increased total niche space (variety of resources) B)increased niche overlap C)increased specialization D)any combination or all of the above Answer: DTopic: niche relationships Difficulty: hard 8.Which of the following could result in an increase in the number of species in a community without reduction in the average productivity of species? A)increased total niche space (variety of resources) B)increased niche overlap C)increased specialization D)any combination or all of the above Answer: ATopic: niche relationships Difficulty: moderate 9.Increased species diversity among many species groups in the tropics (as compared to higher latitude regions) appears to be the result of: A)greater length of individual niche axes. C)Both A and B. B)greater number of niche axes. Answer: CTopic: niche relationships Difficulty: moderate 10.Morphological analyses of species in various communities has revealed that the average size of species niches is independent of community diversity. A)true B) false Answer: ATopic: niche relationships Difficulty: easy 11.Bats in Cameroon, tropical West Africa, play a greater diversity of ecological roles than do bats in Ontario, Canada. Fish in the mouth of a Mexican river system play a greater diversity of ecological roles than do fish in the headwaters of the same river system. Both of these observations is supportive of which of the following hypotheses? A)Species diversity is positively correlated with niche diversity. B)Species diversity is negatively correlated with niche diversity. C)Species diversity shows no direct relationship with niche diversity. Answer: ATopic: niche relationships Difficulty: moderate 12.The variety of color patterns and resting positions exhibited by moths in a tropical habitat (Panama) are greater than those in temperate habitats. This finding lends support to which of the following hypotheses? A)Stronger predation pressure in the tropics leads to diversification of escape tactics. B)Reduced predation pressure in the tropics leads to diversification of escape tactics. C)Color patterns and resting positions in moths have nothing to do with selection pressure exerted by their predators. Answer: ATopic: equilibrium theories of diversity Difficulty: easy 13.Which of the following processes would tend to add species to a community, increasing its equilibrium number? A)competitive exclusion B)movement of individuals between communities C)stochastic extinctions Answer: BTopic: equilibrium theory of island. Difficulty: easy 14.Simberloff and Wilson conducted a well-known experiment in which they fumigated small mangrove islands and observed the recovery through time of arthropod communities on these islands. They found that mangrove islands tended to recover to about the same number of species present pre-fumigation. Which proposition of the equilibrium theory of island biogeography did this observation support? A)Islands distant from the mainland have fewer species than close islands. B)Small islands have fewer species than large islands. C)Each island has an equilibrium number of species. Answer: CTopic: equilibrium theory of island. Difficulty: easy 15.In the equilibrium theory of island biogeography, variation in numbers of species on islands of different sizes is seen as a function of differences in: A)immigration rates. B) extinction rates. C) neither of the above. Answer: BTopic: equilibrium theory of island. Difficulty: easy 16.In the equilibrium theory of island biogeography, variation in numbers of species on islands of different distances from the mainland is seen as a function of differences in: A)immigration rates. B) extinction rates. C) neither of the above. Answer: ATopic: equilibrium theory of diversity Difficulty: moderate 17.Equilibrium theories of species diversity have been applied to islands and to continental regions. Which of the following processes is likely to play a larger role in the determination of equilibrium diversity in a continental region? A)extinction of species C)formation of new species B)immigration of species from elsewhere Answer: CUse the following to answer questions 18-21:Topic: equilibrium theory of diversity Difficulty: moderate 18.Consider the model for the equilibrium number of species in a mainland (continental) region, as illustrated in Figure 23.19. What does this model say about the rate of speciation? A)The rate of speciation decreases as a linear function of the number of species. B)The rate of speciation increases as a linear function of the number of species. C)The rate of speciation increases as a function of the number of species, but the rate of increase decelerates as the number of species becomes large. Answer: CTopic: equilibrium theory of diversity Difficulty: hard 19.Which of the following alternatives would lead to an interpretation of the relationship of speciation to number of species present different from the one depicted in Figure 23.19? A)Opportunities for further diversification are restricted by increasing diversity. B)Opportunities for further diversification are enhanced by increasing diversity. Answer: BTopic: equilibrium theory of diversity Difficulty: moderate 20.Consider the model for equilibrium number of species in a mainland (continental) region, as illustrated in Figure 23.19. What does this model say about the rate of extinction? A)The rate of extinction decreases as a linear function of the number of species. B)The rate of extinction increases as a linear function of the number of species. C)The rate of extinction increases as a function of the number of species, but the rate of increase accelerates as the number of species becomes large. Answer: CTopic: equilibrium theory of diversity Difficulty: hard 21.Which of the following alternatives would lead to an interpretation of the relationship of extinction to number of species present different from the one depicted in Figure 23.19? A)The probability of extinction per species increases with increasing diversity as competitive exclusion becomes more likely. B)The probability of extinction per species decreases with increasing diversity as mutualistic relationships buffer processes that lead to extinction. Answer: BTopic: explanations for tropical diversity Difficulty: moderate 22.Among explanations for tropical diversity, why does the discussion focus heavily on factors that might be responsible for diversity in tropical plant communities? A)Most tropical biologists study plants, not animals. B)Animals play insignificant roles in tropical ecosystems. C)The diversity of animals is linked closely to the diversity of plants, so an understanding of plant diversity helps us to understand the diversity of animals as well. D)Flowering plants dominate most tropical ecosystems, and flowering plants have been on earth much longer than animals. Answer: CTopic: explanations for tropical diversity Difficulty: moderate 23.Some ecologists have proposed that environmental heterogeneity in the tropics leads to greater diversity of trees. Which of the following assumptions underlying this concept seem(s) unlikely? A)Tropical plants recognize much finer habitat differences in the tropics than they do in temperate regions. B)There is more environmental heterogeneity in the tropics than in temperate regions. C)Both of the above. Answer: CTopic: explanations for tropical diversity Difficulty: moderate 24.Some ecologists have proposed that gaps created by disturbances lead to habitat heterogeneity, which, in turn, leads to the coexistence of greater numbers of tree species in tropical habitats, as compared to temperate habitats. Which of the following hypotheses is most closely associated with this proposal? A)Red Queen hypothesis D)intermediate disturbance hypothesis B)character displacement hypothesis E)energy-diversity hypothesis C)Hamilton-Zuk hypothesis Answer: DTopic: explanations for tropical diversity Difficulty: moderate 25.Careful, long-term studies conducted by Steve Hubbell and colleagues _ for the proposal that spatial and temporal variation in gap formation caused by disturbance explains high diversity of tropical trees. A)provide support B) fail to provide support Answer: BTopic: explanations for tropical diversity Difficulty: hard 26.Steve Hubbells work at Barro Colorado Island, Panama, points to which of the following as an impediment to the colonization of gaps by tree species? A)lack of species capable of surviving in gaps B)competitive displacement C)dispersal limitation D)predation Answer: CTopic: explanations for tropical diversity Difficulty: hard 27.Daniel Janzen of the University of Pennsylvania has emphasized which of the following processes in his explanation of high species richness in tropical systems? A)herbivory B) mutualism C) allelopathy D) intraspecific competition Answer: ATopic: explanations for tropical diversity Difficulty: moderate 28.Is there any evidence to support the idea that differential pest pressure can account for differences in diversity of tree species between tropical and temperate regions? A)yes B) no Answer: BTopic: explanations for tropical diversity Difficulty: hard 29.In a synthesis of several ideas, Steve Hubbell has proposed that reduced competitive exclusion in tropical ecosystems can lead to the accumulation of large numbers of species in the tropics. What other components are part of this synthesis? A)operation of processes such as pest pressure and recruitment limitation B)regional production of species C)reduced susceptibility of species to extinction D)all of the above Answer: DTopic: explanations for tropical diversity Difficulty: hard 30.Although we may not fully understand the causes of high species diversity in the tropics, several lines of evidence support the idea that diversity is self-accelerating, i.e., that diversity begets diversity. A)true B) false Answer: AUse the following to answer questions 31-37:In the summer of 1700, an undersea volcanic eruption rocked the central Caribbean Sea. A small island appeared overnight and, as eruptions continued, grew to its present size of 10 10 km in a matter of a few weeks. The volcanic activity subsided almost as quickly as it began, and Santa Rosa (the name given the island by the captain of a Spanish merchant ship) has lain dormant ever since.Colonization of new land habitats proceeds quickly in the Caribbean. Sea birds began nesting on the island within a few years, and many bacteria, fungi, and lower plants were carried to the island by the wind. Floating seeds of many higher plants were washed ashore and the first tropical communities began developing. Occasionally, large rafts of soil, vegetation, and other debris would be torn away from nearby islands during hurricanes and reach the shore of Santa Rosa, providing a rich assemblage of terrestrial plant and animal species to join those that had reached the island by other means. Birds and bats were also attracted to the developing vegetation on the island.Santa Rosa has fascinated naturalists since its formation. Careful studies, many of which are still available to us today, provide a database almost unequaled in the history of ecosystem studies. For example, Sir Harvey Humwater, in the famous voyage of the Beatle, described the islands geography and vegetation as they were in 1850. He found the island to be divided into two major regions by its central volcanic backbone. The eastern side, which receives the prevailing moisture-laden trade winds, supports a lush, moist tropical rainforest. The mountains of the island create a rain shadow, with arid conditions found on the western, or leeward, side of the island. These arid conditions result in a tropical scrub habitata low, open, and structurally simple woodland dominated by tall shrubs in the genus Acacia. Steep environmental gradients in the mountains create a wide variety of habitat conditions, resulting in a range of plant and animal communities too numerous to describe here. Recent studies show that Humwaters observations hold true today.Although 19th-century naturalist-explorers like Humwater made excellent observations of changes on Santa Rosa, they lacked a theoretical basis for organizing these observations. The modern field of ecology offers many such theories. Please use your understanding of biological diversity to put some of the earlier observations into a modern context. Topic: island biogeographic theory Difficulty: easy 31.The naturalist-explorers who visited Santa Rosa during the 19th century conducted repeated inventories of the islands flora and fauna. Many of these individuals commented on the constancy of numbers of species belonging to various groups. For example, Santa Rosa has approximately 30 species of land and freshwater birds and has maintained this number since the late 1700s, despite some turnover in the actual species present. What modern theory accounts for the relatively constant number of species on islands? Who developed this theory? Answer: The equilibrium theory of island biogeography, developed by Robert MacArthur and E.O. Wilson, accounts for constancy of species number on islands. Topic: equilibrium theory of community. Difficulty: moderate 32.The equilibrium theory of island biogeography is related to a more general equilibrium theory of community diversity. Compare and contrast the equilibrium theory of community diversity with the theory of density-dependent regulation of population size. Answer: These theories differ in that the equilibrium theory of community diversity (TCD) accounts for the number of species present in a community, whereas the theory of density-dependent regulation of population size (TDR) addresses the number of individuals in a population. Both theories account for changes in numbers by identifying equilibria of opposing processes. The formation of new species or immigration of species from elsewhere in TCD are analogous to births and immigration of individuals in TDR. The local extinction of species in TCD is analogous to deaths in TDR. Topic: equilibrium theory of community. Difficulty: moderate 33. As seen in Figure 23.14, the equilibrium theory of island biogeography predicts somewhat curved relationships of the rates of immigration and extinction to the number of species present on an island. Why are these relationships curved rather than linear? Answer: Because the first species reaching an island are likely to be the better colonizers in the regional flora or fauna, the rate of immigration to an island initially decreases more rapidly with increasing island diversity. The result is lower rates of immigration than would be the case if all species were equally likely to find the island. As more species crowd an island, population sizes become smaller and the likelihood of an individual species going extinct increases, resulting in a progressively more rapid rise in the extinction curve than would be the case if the rate of extinction were simply proportional to the number of species on the island. Topic: equilibrium theory of community. Difficulty: moderate 34. The naturalist-explorers who visited Santa Rosa during the 19th century were aware that smaller islands have fewer species than larger islands. How does the equilibrium theory of island biogeography account for this finding? (Hint: Consider Figure 23.15.) Answer: Because smaller islands generally support smaller populations than larger islands, the extinction curves for smaller islands will lie above those for larger islands. The equilibrium number of species on a smaller island (intersection of immigration and extinction curves) will thus be lower than that for a larger island. Topic: equilibrium theory of community. Difficulty: moderate 35. The naturalist-explorers who visited Santa Rosa during the 19th century were aware that islands more distant from a mainland source of migrants have fewer species than islands closer to a mainland. How does the equilibrium theory of island biogeography account for this finding? (Hint: Consider Figure 23.16.) Answer: Because the rates of immigration will generally be lower for more distant islands, the immigration curves for distant islands will lie below those for islands closer to a mainland source of migrants. The equilibrium number of species on a distant island (intersection of immigration and extinction curves) will thus be lower than that for a closer island. Topic: ecological release Difficulty: moderate 36.Santa Rosa has a twin island, Santa Asor. Santa Asor is much more distant from the mainland than Santa Rosa and consequently has fewer species. Otherwise, the islands are quite similar in size, topography, and variety of habitats. Explorers like Harvey Humwater discovered that species on Santa Asor had larger populations and broader niches than their counterparts on Santa Rosa. Can you offer an explanation for this phenomenon? Answer: This may be an example of ecological release. With fewer competing populations, the residents of Santa Asor could maintain larger populations and expand into habitats normally occupied by other species on the more species-rich Santa Rosa. Topic: ecological release Difficulty: moderate 37.Explorers of the various habitats on Santa Rosa commented on the differences in numbers of species. The rainforest habitat, for example, has nearly twice the number of species of birds as the tropical scrub habitat. Offer two possible explanations for this difference. Answer: One likely possibility is that the structural complexity of the rainforest permits more species to coexist. Similar patterns have been observed worldwide and were first put into a quantitative framework by Robert and John MacArthur. Another possibility is that the greater production of the rainforest habitat leads to coexistence of more species. However, various interpretations of the energy-diversity relationship exist and there is some doubt about its generality. Topic: regional and local diversities Difficulty: moderate 38.The species that occur within a region are referred to as its _. Answer: species pool Topic: fundamental and realized niches Difficulty: easy 39.The _ of a species takes into account the range of conditions and resources within which individuals of the species can persist. Answer: fundamental niche Topic: fundamental and realized niches Difficulty: easy 40.Other species may restrict the distribution of a given species to parts of its fundamental niche where it is more successful; this subset of the fundamental niche is called the _. Answer: realized niche Topic: coexistence of species Difficulty: moderate 41.If the optimum conditions for a set of competing species are arranged uniformly along a niche axis representing an essential resource, increasing the niche breadths of all species would lead to increased niche _. Answer: overlap Topic: coexistence of species Difficulty: moderate 42.Reduced niche breadth is a manifestation of increased _. Answer: specialization Topic: equilibrium theory of island. Difficulty: moderate 43.In the equilibrium theory of island biogeography, as more species accumulate on an island, the rate of extinction increases and the rate of _ decreases. Answer: immigration Topic: explanations for tropical diversity Difficulty: moderate 44.Rubber plantations have failed repeatedly in the Amazon basin, where the rubber tree is native, but such plantations have been successful in Malaysia, where specialist herbivores are not present. This observation has provided support for the _ hypothesis for higher diversity in the tropics. Answer: pest pressure Topic: components of diversity Difficulty: moderate 45.Regional diversity equals local diversity times _. Answer: beta diversity Topic: determinants of diversity Difficulty: moderate 46.Vegetation structure and primary productivity both appear to determine diversity. Which seems to be more important? Answer: Although there is a tendency for more productive habitats to harbor more species, structural complexity appears to be a more important determinant of diversity. Among equally productive habitats, the more structurally complex have higher diversity. Less productive habitats with greater structural diversity also harbor more species than more productive habitats with less structural diversity. Topic: determinants of diversity Difficulty: moderate 47.One theory of divers
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