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Chapter 22: DevelopmentChapter 22: DevelopmentTopic: kinds of succession Difficulty: easy 1.The Island of Krakatau has provided an ideal setting for studies of which kind of succession? A)primary B) secondary C) tertiary Answer: ATopic: dispersal of seeds Difficulty: moderate 2.Why did wind- and water-dispersed plant species precede animal-dispersed plant species as the volcanic island of Krakatau was colonized following its 1883 explosion? A)Wind and water are more effective dispersal agents than animals. B)Animals have a very difficult time reaching Krakatau. C)Animals were not attracted to the island until forests developed. Answer: CTopic: successional processes Difficulty: moderate 3.Which of the following is most likely to be correct? A)Each successional stage makes conditions more favorable for the next successional stage. B)Each successional stage makes conditions less favorable for the next successional stage. C)Each successional stage modifies the environmental conditions of the site. Answer: CTopic: succession on abandoned fields Difficulty: easy 4.In the Piedmont of North Carolina, the first few years of succession on abandoned fields are characterized by a community of: A)herbaceous species. B) shrubby species. C) pines. D) hardwood tree species. Answer: ATopic: convergence in succession Difficulty: moderate 5.Succession on sand dunes at the southern end of Lake Michigan and succession in nearby marshes share which of the following in common? A)their early successional stages C)their climax communities B)their mid-successional stagesAnswer: CTopic: kinds of succession Difficulty: easy 6.Glacial kettleholes, lava flows, and sand dunes are similar in that they support which of the following types of succession? A)primary B) secondary C) tertiary Answer: ATopic: kinds of succession Difficulty: easy 7.Tornadoes, logging operations, and less severe fires all initiate which of the following types of succession? A)primary B) secondary C) tertiary Answer: BTopic: kinds of succession Difficulty: moderate 8.Although successions in wetlands are highly varied, the end products (climaxes) are always wetland communities. A)true B) false Answer: BTopic: gaps and succession Difficulty: moderate 9.In his studies of invasion of hard substrates by various subtidal invertebrates, Michael Keough made the surprising discovery that, among isolated bare patches, _, more successfully colonized the larger patches. A)the better competitors, tunicates and sponges B)the disturbance-adapted species, bryozoans and polychaetes C)the large predators, such as starfish Answer: ATopic: gaps and succession Difficulty: moderate 10.Why did the densities of limpets tend to be greater in small gaps in Wayne Sousas experiments on intertidal rocky shores in California? A)Limpets are better able to locate small gaps. B)Limpets move so slowly that they never reach the centers of large gaps. C)Limpets only venture relatively short distances from the protective cover of mussels. Answer: CTopic: nature of the climax Difficulty: easy 11.Which of the following scientists stated that each climax formation is capable of repeating with essential fidelity the stages of its development. A)F.E. Clements B) J.T. Curtis C) R.P. McIntosh D) R.O. Slatyer Answer: ATopic: mechanisms of succession Difficulty: easy 12.In southern California, early-arriving, fast-growing algae provide dense protective cover for reestablishment of kelp following disturbance by winter storms. In areas experimentally kept clear of early successional species of algae, grazing fish quickly removed settling kelp. Which of the following successional processes describes the relationship of kelp to the pioneering algae? A)facilitation B) inhibition C) tolerance Answer: ATopic: mechanisms of succession Difficulty: easy 13.Managers of power-line rights-of-way in the northeastern United States have discovered that dense shrub thickets, once established, can prevent establishment of forest trees. By maintaining shrubs under power lines, managers can greatly reduce the maintenance expenses (for mowing or herbicide application) normally associated with prevention of tree growth beneath power lines. Of which mechanism of succession are these managers taking advantage? A)facilitation B) inhibition C) tolerance Answer: BTopic: mechanisms of succession Difficulty: easy 14.Which of the following mechanisms of succession involves the establishment of species independently of the presence or absence of other species? A)facilitation B) inhibition C) tolerance Answer: CTopic: mechanisms of succession Difficulty: moderate 15.In abandoned fields in the Piedmont of North Carolina, either ragweed, a summer annual, or horseweed, a winter annual, typically dominates in the first year following abandonment. If a field is plowed under in late autumn and then abandoned, which of these two species is likely to flourish in the following year? A)ragweed B) horseweed Answer: ATopic: mechanisms of succession Difficulty: moderate 16.In the successional sere on abandoned fields in the Piedmont of North Carolina, self-inhibition is a common mechanism determining the course of community development. In which of the following cases has self-inhibition been documented? A)horseweed (stunting of seedlings by decaying roots) B)aster (self-shading) C)pine (self-shading) D)all of the above Answer: DTopic: mechanisms of succession Difficulty: moderate 17.Although they do not fully understand the mechanisms responsible, ecologists have observed that diversity is generally highest during the _ stages of succession. A)early B) intermediate C) late Answer: BTopic: mechanisms of succession Difficulty: hard 18.As communities develop through succession, biomass accumulates initially, but eventually levels off at climax. Given that climax communities may remain quite productive, why doesnt biomass continue accumulating indefinitely? A)A greater amount of production is allocated to maintenance. B)Biomass accumulated earlier in succession begins to decay. C)Both of the above contribute to this phenomenon. Answer: CTopic: approaching the climax Difficulty: moderate 19.Compared to earlier successional stages, later stages often have a larger proportion of productivity entering _ food chains. A)consumer B) detrital C) connectedness Answer: BTopic: successional adaptations Difficulty: moderate 20.Which of the following is not a typical attribute of an early-successional species? A)rapid growth B)excellent dispersal ability C)large seed size D)shade-intolerance E)ability to colonize unexploited environments Answer: CTopic: successional adaptations Difficulty: moderate 21.You are shown seeds of four different plant species. The largest of these seeds weighs 10 g, and the others weigh 1 g, 100 mg, and 10 mg, respectively. Which of these species has seedlings with the best prospect of surviving under shaded conditions? A)the plant with 10 g seeds C)the plant with 100 mg seeds B)the plant with 1 g seeds D)the plant with 10 mg seeds Answer: ATopic: successional adaptations Difficulty: moderate 22.Below are figures for the percentage allocation of production to shoots (above-ground parts) for four different species. Which of these is likely to be an annual herbaceous species? A)8090% B) 7080% C) 6070% D) 2060% Answer: ATopic: climaxes of extreme environments Difficulty: easy 23.The extensive natural pine forests of the southern Atlantic and Gulf Coasts of the United States are maintained by: A)grazing. B) frequent logging. C) occasional hurricanes. D) periodic fires. Answer: DTopic: climaxes of extreme environments Difficulty: easy 24.The interaction of frequent fire and recurrent drought combine to maintain both forest and prairie under identical climatic conditions in the Midwestern United States. A)true B) false Answer: ATopic: climaxes of extreme environments Difficulty: moderate 25.Which of the following is a fire-maintained climax that gives way to oak woodland when fire is suppressed? A)arctic tundra B)oak-hickory forest in the Piedmont of North Carolina C)sugar maple-basswood forest in Wisconsin D)chaparral in California Answer: DTopic: alternate stable states Difficulty: moderate 26.Which of the following examples of successional processes illustrates how disturbance can lead to alternate stable states (climaxes) in the same habitat? A)succession of carrion feeders in the African savanna B)replacement of pines by deciduous tree species in the Piedmont of North Carolina C)development of beech-maple forests on Lake Michigan sand dunes D)grazing-induced invasion of cheatgrass and its promotion of fire in western North America Answer: DTopic: mosaic patterns Difficulty: easy 27.A large canopy tree falls in a deciduous forest in Great Smoky Mountains National Park, opening a gap in the forest canopy. The drier, warmer, sunlit environment thus created is favorable to establishment of successional tree species. Whenever deaths of individuals alter the environment, as in this example, the result is what ecologists refer to as a _ pattern. A)primary B) secondary C) catastrophic D) mosaic Answer: DTopic: cyclic climaxes Difficulty: easy 28.Species Z can only establish under species Y, which in turn can only establish under species X, which in turn can only establish under species Z. The system supporting regular replacement of species in the order X, Y, Z, X, Y, Z, X, . . . is referred to as a _. A)cyclic climax B) secondary climax C) climatic climax D) nonclimax Answer: ATopic: cyclic climaxes Difficulty: moderate 29.Can a persistent cycle, such as that described for heaths and other types of vegetation in northern Scotland, be considered a climax? A)yes B) no Answer: ATopic: success and climax Difficulty: easy 30.The study of succession and climax involves only plants and their adaptations. A)true B) false Answer: BUse the following to answer questions 31-35:One of the best-studied examples of succession is at Glacier Bay, Alaska. Glaciers in this area have retreated rapidly, and the positions of various glaciers have been documented carefully since 1760. Retreating glaciers create an ideal setting for studies of succession because many sites of known age (since exposure by the retreating glaciers) are available for comparative study. Researchers have taken advantage of the series of sites of known age since exposure (called a chronosequence) to reconstruct successional events presumed to take place on any single site. Pioneering successional research by W.S. Cooper in the early 1900s was followed by important work by Crocker and Major in the 1950s and more recently by efforts of Chapin and colleagues. Thanks to these researchers, we know a great deal about succession at Glacier Bay. A brief summary of these findings follows:There are four principal stages of succession at Glacier Bay. The first stage, developed 510 years following deglaciation, is dominated by cyanobacteria, lichens, liverworts, and primitive vascular plants. The second stage, best developed from 3545 years, is dominated by a low shrub, Dryas drummondii; scattered individuals of larger shrubs (including the alder, Alnus sinuata) and trees enter at this time. The third stage, best developed from 6070 years, is an alder-dominated woodland. By 200225 years, the climax community, a forest dominated by Picea sitchensis (Sitka spruce) is well-established.Glacial till is essentially bedrock that has been ground and carried beneath an advancing glacier. The till materials consist of clay, sand, gravel, and rock that are the parent of material of soil that develops after till is exposed by the retreating glacier. The bedrock sources of the Glacier Bay till are metamorphosed sandstone and limestone, which weather rapidly. Many of the early- to mid-successional plant species in the Glacier Bay sere are nitrogen-fixers. Pioneer species include nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria. A nitrogen-fixer in the second stage is Dryas drummondii, a low-growing shrub in the rose family. Another nitrogen-fixer, Alnus sinuata, also enters during the second stage and becomes dominant during the third stage.The research conducted at Glacier Bay has raised many important questions regarding community development. Please use your understanding of succession to answer several of these. Topic: primary succession Difficulty: easy 31.What kind of succession occurs at Glacier Bay? Answer: primary succession Topic: primary succession Difficulty: moderate 32.Why are so many of the prominent early- to mid-successional species at Glacier Bay nitrogen fixers? Answer: Rocks contain little or no nitrogen. Because the glacial till is primarily ground rock, there is little nitrogen present. Most plants cannot grow in media containing little or no nitrogen, but nitrogen-fixers have an opportunity to take advantage of the other resources available. Topic: facilitation Difficulty: moderate 33.Many of the species that take part in the Glacier Bay succession, including the climax dominant, Sitka spruce, are incapable of fixing nitrogen and are thus dependent on the activities of other, nitrogen-fixing species before they can enter the sere. Which of the successional processes recognized by Connell and Slatyer is represented by the invasion of plants such as Sitka spruce made possible by the activities of nitrogen fixers? Explain your answer. Answer: This is an example of facilitation. This process defines the situation in which a given successional stage alters conditions in a way that is favorable to later successional stages. Because plants such as Sitka spruce cannot colonize deglaciated sites until biologically fixed nitrogen has accumulated, their entry is facilitated by nitrogen fixers. Topic: inhibition Difficulty: moderate 34.Chapin and associates discovered that although alder contributes biologically fixed nitrogen to deglaciated sites, it also resists colonization by later successional species. Which of the successional processes recognized by Connell and Slatyer is represented by this latter interaction? Explain your answer. Answer: This is an example of inhibition. Early successional species often create conditions unfavorable to the species that eventually replace them. Despite the fact that alders contribute biologically fixed nitrogen to the system, they also play an inhibitory role. Topic: successional processes Difficulty: hard 35.Many of the species enter the successional sere at Glacier Bay well before they become dominant. For example, both alder and Sitka spruce are present in the Dryas-dominated stage at 3545 years. What does this behavior tell us about successional processes at Glacier Bay? If this behavior is widespread in succession, what implication does it have for a rigid, Clementsian view of facilitation as the driving force of succession? Answer: Many species may be present at low population densities and/or in smaller size classes well before they become prominent in the successional stage that they dominate. This observation runs counter to the idea that species must wait to enter the sere until conditions are made suitable for them. A widespread occurrence of late-successional species in early stages would suggest that processes other than strict facilitation must be operating in succession. Topic: succession Difficulty: easy 36.The ultimate association of species terminating a succession is called a _ community. Answer: climax Topic: succession Difficulty: easy 37.The sequence of species and communities occupying a site as it undergoes succession from start to finish is called a _. Answer: sere Topic: primary succession Difficulty: easy 38.Organic sediments, called _, that accumulate in a pond can build to the point where the pond becomes a bog and the bog eventually becomes a terrestrial forest. Answer: peat Topic: nature of the climax Difficulty: moderate 39.Mature forest communities in Wisconsin were ordered by J.T. Curtis and R.P. McIntosh along a _, ranging from dry sites dominated by oak and aspen to moist sites dominated by sugar maple, ironwood, and basswood. Answer: continuum index Topic: mechanisms of succession Difficulty: easy 40.The familiar saguaro cacti of the Sonoran desert cannot establish from seed in full sun. Instead, these cacti germinate and grow initially in the shelter of shrubs, in an excellent example of _. Answer: facilitation Topic: successional adaptations Difficulty: easy 41.Seeds of some early successional species can remain dormant for years in _ of later successional communities, until disturbance creates conditions required for germination and growth. Answer: soil banks Topic: successional adaptations Difficulty: easy 42.Plant species capable of survival and growth in the deep shade under a forest canopy are called _ species. Answer: shade-tolerant Topic: transient climaxes Difficulty: easy 43.Small seasonal ponds in the temperate zone undergo succession to climax each year. They usually fill in the spring and go through a succession of plant and animal dominants until the community is destroyed by summer drought or winter freezing. The assemblage of plants and animals developing each year in such a pond is referred to as a _ climax. Answer: transient Topic: cyclic climaxes Difficulty: easy 44.In certain species-poor communities, succession continually repeats itself, with the community of each microsite undergoing regeneration, growth, damage, and decline in what has been termed a _ climax. Answer: cyclic Topic: climax Difficulty: moderate 45.Adaptation by different species to growing in particular conditions created by different-sized openings could enhance the overall _ of a climax community. Answer: diversity Topic: gaps and succession Difficulty: hard 46.Gap size can have important effects on the course of succession. Briefly discuss three ways in which this may happen. How does the existence of multiple effects of gap size affect our ability to construct rules about effects of gap size on succession? Answer: There are many possibilities. Small gaps are more likely to be occupied by lateral encroachment of late-successional species surrounding the gap; large gaps may be more likely to support populations of colonizing species. Another possibility is that larger gaps represent larger targets for species with limited dispersal capabilities. Such species are thus more likely to colonize larger gaps. Finally, gap size may affect the behaviors of predators and herbivores, which, in turn, can alter the course of succession through their activities. Some of these consumers may be more active in large gaps, others in small gaps, or only around the periphery of large gaps. Because there are so many potential effects of gap size on succession, it is impossible to develop a single rule covering all possibilities. Indeed, some of these processes may have opposing effects on successional development! Topic: nature of the climax Difficulty: moderate 47.Compare and contrast the perspective on succession and climax supported by F.E. Clements with that supported by J.T. Curtis and R.P. McIntosh. Answer: Clements believed that succession occurring under a particular climatic regime would lead to a predictable climax for that climate. Climaxes were seen as closed communities, and Clements recognized relatively few of these for North America. Local effects of soils, topography, fire, and grazing on community composition were viewed merely as factors maintaining the community in an immature stage. In many ways, the perspective of Curtis and McIntosh was diametrically opposed to that of Clements. The Curtis-McIntosh view allowed for open communities, intergrading continuously along environmental gradients. A wide variety of climax species assemblages were seen as possible, each a reflection of local conditions and adaptations of species to these. Topic: biological properties during succession Difficulty: moderate 48.How do biomass, productivity, and their ratio (biomass:productivity) change through a successional sere? Answer: Productivity, limited primarily by climatic factors and local resources (such as availability of nutrients) should remain relatively constant through the sere, once the site is full
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