胡壮麟语言学课件Chapter 5-semantics

ChapterFive

Meaning11.TheStudyofMeaningSemantics:

Themeaningofwords:LexicalsemanticsThemeaningofsentences:Propositionalmeaning,compositionalmeaningLinguisticsemanticsvs.Logicalsemantics/philosophicalsemanticsPragmatics:

Themeaningofutterances22.SemanticMeaningSemanticsisthestudyofmeaninginlanguage.Meaninghasbeenstudiedforthousandsofyearsbyphilosophers,logiciansandlinguists.E.g.Plato&Aristotle.3Logiciansandphilosophershavetendedtoconcentrateonarestrictedrangeofsentences(typically,statements,or‘propositions’)withinasinglelanguage.Thelinguisticapproachaimstostudythepropertiesofmeaninginasystematicandobjectiveway,withreferencetoaswidearangeofutterancesandlanguagesaspossible,∴broaderinscope.43.ThemeaningofmeaningC.K.Ogden&I.A.Richards(1923).TheMeaningofMeaning.Johnmeanstowrite.Agreenlightmeanstogo.Healthmeanseverything.Hislookwasfullofmeaning.Whatisthemeaningoflife?Whatdoes‘capitalist’meantoyou?Whatdoes‘cornea’mean?5GeoffreyLeech(1974,1981).Semantics:TheStudyofMeaning.Seventypesofmeaning:ConceptualmeaningConnotativemeaningSocialmeaningAffectivemeaningReflectedandmeaningCollocativemeaningThematicmeaningAssociativeMeaning63.1ConceptualmeaningAlsocalled‘denotative’or‘cognitive’meaning.Referstological,cognitiveordenotativecontent.Concernedwiththerelationshipbetweenawordandthethingitdenotes,orrefersto.73.2ConnotativemeaningThecommunicativevalueanexpressionhasbyvirtueofwhatitrefersto,overandaboveitspurelyconceptualcontent.Amultitudeofadditional,non-criterialproperties,includingnotonlyphysicalcharacteristicsbutalsopsychologicalandsocialproperties,aswellastypicalfeatures.8Involvingthe‘realworld’experienceoneassociateswithanexpressionwhenoneusesorhearsit.Unstable:theyvaryconsiderablyaccordingtoculture,historicalperiod,andtheexperienceoftheindividual.Anycharacteristicofthereferent,identifiedsubjectivelyorobjectively,maycontributetotheconnotativemeaningoftheexpressionwhichdenotesit.93.3SocialmeaningWhatapieceoflanguageconveysaboutthesocialcircumstancesofitsuse.Dialect:thelanguageofageographicalregionorofasocialclass.Time:thelanguageofthe18thc.,etc.Province:languageoflaw,ofscience,ofadvertising,etc.Status:polite,colloquial,slang,etc.Modality:languageofmemoranda,lectures,jokes,etc.Singularity:thestyleofDickens,etc.10domicile:veryformal,officialresidence:formalabode:poetichome:generalsteed:poetichorse:generalnag:slanggee-gee:babylanguage113.4AffectivemeaningReflectingthepersonalfeelingsofthespeaker,includinghisattitudetothelistener,orhisattitudetosomethingheistalkingabout.You’reavicioustyrantandavillainousreprobate,andIhateyouforit!I’mterriblysorrytointerrupt,butIwonderifyouwouldbesokindastoloweryourvoicesalittle.

orWillyoubeltup.123.5ReflectedmeaningArisesincasesofmultipleconceptualmeaning,whenonesenseofawordformspartofourresponsetoanothersense.Whenyouhear‘clickthemousetwice’,youthinkofGerrybeinghittwicebyTomsoyoufeelexcited.Manytabootermsareresultofthis.133.6CollocativemeaningTheassociationsawordacquiresonaccountofthemeaningsofwordswhichtendtooccurinitsenvironment.pretty:girl,boy,woman,flower,garden,colour,village,etc.handsome:boy,man,car,vessel,overcoat,airliner,typewriter,etc.143.7ThematicmeaningWhatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichaspeakerorwriterorganizesthemessage,intermsofordering,focus,andemphasis.MrsBessieSmithdonatedthefirstprize.ThefirstprizewasdonatedbyMrsBessieSmith.Theystoppedattheendofthecorridor.Attheendofthecorridor,theystopped.154.TheTheoryofReferenceWords→Meaning:Words‘name’or‘referto’things

--PlatonicWords→Concepts→Things:Ogden&Richardsthought/concept/imagesymbolizes

referstosymbolreferent(word)standsfor(object)165.Sense‘Meaning’isnotsomekindof‘entity’separatefromlanguage.Thatwords‘havemeaning’meansonlythattheyareusedinacertainwayinasentence.Thereisno‘meaning’beyondthemeaningofindividualwordsandsentences.17‘Themeaningofawordisitsuseinthelanguage’.(LudwigWittgenstein)Meaningisstudiedbymakingdetailedanalysesofthewaywordsandsentencesareusedinspecificcontexts.Reference:howlanguagereferstothisexternalworldSense:thewaypeoplerelatewordstoeachotherwithintheframeworkoftheirlanguage18Thefamilytree舅父=‘mother’sbrother’叔叔=‘father’syoungerbrother’伯父=‘father’selderbrother’姨母=‘mother’ssister’姑母=‘father’ssister’196.

SenseRelationsSynonymyAntonymyHyponymyGradableComplementaryConverse206.1Synonymybuy/purchasethrifty/economical/stingyautumn/fallflat/apartmenttube/underground216.2Gradableantonymy

goodbadlongshortbigsmallCanbemodifiedbyadverbsofdegreelikevery.Canhavecomparativeforms.Canbeaskedwithhow.226.3Complementaryantonymyalive:deadmale:femalepresent:absentinnocent:guiltyodd:evenpass:failboy:girlhit:miss236.4Converseantonymybuy:selllend:borrowgive:receiveparent:childhusband:wifeteacher:studentabove:belowbefore:afterhost:guestemployer:employee246.5HyponymyInclusivenessAisincludedin/akindofB.Cf.:chairandfurniture,roseandflowerSuperordinate/hypernym:themoregeneraltermHyponym:themorespecifictermCo-hyponyms:membersofthesameclass25

Animal

birdfishinsectanimal

humananimal

tigerlionelephant...267.ComponentialAnalysisHUMANman(ADULT,MALE)woman(ADULT,FEMALE)boy(NON-ADULT,MALE)girl(NON-ADULT,FEMALE)277.1Animalwords287.2Domesticanimals297.3Englishmotionverbs307.4Morecomplexonesfather:PARENT(x,y)&MALE(x)xisaparentofy,andxismale.take:CAUSE(x,(HAVE(x,y)))xcausesxtohavey.give:CAUSE(x,(~HAVE(x,y)))xcausesxnottohavey.318.Meaning&SyntacticStructureThemeaningofasentenceisobviouslyrelatedtothemeaningsofthewordsusedinit,butitisalsoobviousthatsentencemeaningisnotsimplythesumtotalofthewords.32Thecatischasingthemouse.Themouseischasingthecat.Ihavereadthatbook.ThatbookIhaveread.ThedaughterofQueenElizabeth’ssonisthesonofQueenElizabeth’sdaughter.338.1CompositionalityAnintegratedtheoryKatz&Fodor(1963):Thestructureofasemantictheory.A40longpaperpublishedinLanguage.Themethoditselfisyearsoutofdatebutthedebateabouttheprincipleofcompositionalityisbynomeansover(Cruse,2004:77).34TheideabehindtheprinciplewastosolvetheproblemofgeneratinggrammaticalbutincorrectsentenceslikeColorlessgreenideassleepfuriously.ThepurposewastowageanattackonChomsky’sbasisassumptionthatcorrectsentencescouldbegeneratedbysyntactictransformationsalone,disregardingthesemanticrulesatSurfaceStructure.

35AlthoughmanysemanticiststurnedawayfromChomskybydevelopingformalsemantictheoriesbythemselves,ChomskydidadmitsoonthatsemanticruleswouldbefoundatDeepStructureaswellasSurfaceStructure(EST)andlateronplacedsemanticrules/representationintheS-Structurealtogether(sinceREST).OtherideaswerealsoincorporatedintoChomsky’slatermodelsofgrammar,e.g.theconceptofprojection.36Accordingtotheprincipleofcompositionality,eachwordinthelexiconisequippedwithcertaincomponentsandcombinationsofwordsintosentencesmustgothroughcertainselectionrestrictionsinordertoproduceacceptablesentences.Thuswecansaycolorfulballbecause37colorful{Adj}a.(Color)[aboundingincontrastorvarietyofbrightcolors]<(PhysicalObject)or(SocialActivity)>b.(Evaluative)[havingdistinctivecharacter,vividness,orpicturesqueness]<(AestheticObject)or(SocialActivity)>38ball{NC}a.(SocialActivity)(Large)(Assembly)[forthepurposeofsocialdancing]b.(PhysicalObject)[havingglobularshape]c.(PhysicalObject)[solidmissileforprojectionbyengineofwar]39Thenitispossibletoworkoutfourreadingsofthecombinationsofcolorandball,andfurthercombinationswithotherwords(projections)willdeterminewhichofthefouristheactualmeaninginthesentenceJohnhitthecolorfulballsandWehadacolorfulballlastnight.408.2.NoncompositionalmeaningIdioms:cannotbebuiltupasthesumofitsparts.Idiomsarephrasesderivedbymetaphorandothertypesofsemanticextension.getuponthewrongsideofthebedinthedoghousegreenwithenvy

kickthebucketfacethemusic

41kickthebucket:which?A.Becauseshegotmad,thathenkickedabucket.B.Acartoonpainterabouttokickabucketofpaint.

C.theprocessofdying

42Frozenmetaphors:aclassofidiom-likeexpressionswhichmayshowsomeofthefeaturesofsyntacticfrozennesstypicalofidioms,suchasresistancetomodification,transformation,andsoon,butwhichdifferfromidiomsinanimportantrespect:theeffectofsynonymsubstitutionisnotacompletecollapseofthenon-literalreading.43Theball’sinyourcourtnow.

onyoursideofthenetAcat

canlookataqueen.

mouse

anarchbishopIcanreadherlikeanopenbook.

decipherHehasonefootinthegrave.

bothfeet

tomb

oneleg

coffin44Igavehimapieceofmymind.

part

conceptualsystemHedrivesmeupthewall.

forces

roompartitionHehasabeeinhisbonnetaboutit.

hornet

helmet458.4Collocations468.5ClichésI’vemademypositionabsolutelyclear.I’vegivenanunambiguousexpositionofmyviews.It’srainingdogsandcats.Hearrivedsafeandsound.478.6Nouncompoundspocketknife:knifethatcanbecarriedinthepocketkitchenknife:knifeforuseinthekitchenmeatknife:knifeforcuttingmeattablecloth:clothusedtocoveratabledishcloth:clothusedtowipedishes488.7“Activezones”aredhat:wholehatisredaredbook:outsidecoversareredaredapple:asignificantportionofouterskinisredayellowpeach:innerfleshisyellowapinkgrapefruit:innerfleshispink49aredtrafficsign:symbolsonlyareredaredpencil:(1)redonoutside;(2)writesredredeyes:‘white’ofeyesisredblueeyes:irisisblue509.PropositionalLogicTruthcondition:

conditionswhichmustholdforthesentencetobeusedtomakeatruestatement(atleastifitisusedliterally).Thus,beforewecantruthfullysay,onsomeoccasion,Thecatisonthemat,theremustbesomerelevantfelineoccupyingaspecificpositionrelativetoanappropriateitemoffloorcovering.

51Thoseaspectsofthemeaningofasentencewhichdetermineitstruthconditionsarecollectivelyknownasthepropositionalcontentofthesentence.Twosentenceswithidenticalpropositionalcontentwillyieldstatementswiththesametruthvaluesonalloccasionsofuse,asforinstance,JohncaressedMaryand