领导学：在实践中提升领导力（原书第10版）课件 第15章　权变领导理论

Chapter15ContingencyTheoriesofLeadershipCopyright©2022McGraw-HillEducation.Allrightsreserved.NoreproductionordistributionwithoutthepriorwrittenconsentofMcGraw-HillEducation.ChapterOutlineIntroductionLeader-memberexchange,orLMX,theoryThenormativedecisionmodelThesituationalleadershipmodelThecontingencymodelThepath-goaltheoryContingencyTheoriesofLeadershipItisacapitalmistaketotheorizebeforeonehasdata.SirArthurConanDoyle,authorIntroductionTheleader-follower-situationmodelisparsimonious.Usestheleader,thefollowers,andthesituationaspredictorvariables.Similaritiesamongnormativedecisionmodel,situationalleadershipmodel,contingencymodel,andpath-goaltheory.Categorizedastheoriesratherthanpersonalopinions.Implicitlyassumethatleadersareabletoaccuratelydiagnoseorassesskeyaspectsofthefollowersandtheleadershipsituation.Withtheexceptionofthecontingencymodel,leadersareassumedtobeabletoactinaflexiblemanner.Acorrectmatchbetweensituationalandfollowercharacteristicsandleaders’behaviorisassumedtohaveapositiveeffectongroupororganizationaloutcomes.Leader-MemberExchange,orLMX,TheoryLeader-memberexchanges:In-groupandout-groupinteractionsbetweenleadersandfollowers.Arguesthatleadersdonottreatallfollowerslikeauniformgroupofequals.Formspecificanduniquelinkageswitheachsubordinate,creatingaseriesofdyadicrelationships.Interpersonalinteractionislimitedtofulfillingcontractualobligationswiththeout-group,orlow-qualityexchangerelationships.Formmutuallybeneficial,high-qualityexchangerelationshipsthatgobeyondwhatthejobrequireswiththein-group.Contributeempowerment,sponsorshipofsubordinatesinsocialnetworks,andmentoring.Table15.1:TheCycleofLeadershipMakingSource:AdaptedfromG.B.GraenandM.Uhl-Bien,“Relationship-BasedApproachtoLeadership:DevelopmentofLeader–MemberExchange(LMX)Theoryover25Years:ApplyingaMulti-levelMulti-domainPerspective,”LeadershipQuarterly6(1995),pp.219–47.Accessthetextalternativeforslideimages.SituationalLeadershipModel1Focusesonthefollowingleadershipbehaviorcategories:Taskbehaviors:Extenttowhichtheleaderspellsouttheresponsibilitiesofanindividualorgroup.Includetellingpeoplewhattodo,howorwhentodoit,andwhoistodoit.Relationshipbehaviors:Extenttowhichtheleaderengagesintwo-waycommunication.Includelistening,encouraging,facilitating,clarifying,explainingwhythetaskisimportant,andgivingsupport.Relativeeffectivenessofthebehaviordimensionsoftendependsonthesituation.Figure15.1:SituationalLeadershipSource:P.Hersey,K.Blanchard,andD.Johnson,ManagementofOrganizationalBehavior:UtilizingHumanResources,7thed.(EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall,1996),p.200.Accessthetextalternativeforslideimages.SituationalLeadershipModel2Followerreadiness:Follower’sabilityandwillingnesstoaccomplishaparticulartask.Readinessisnotanassessmentofanindividual’spersonality,traits,values,orage.Notapersonalcharacteristic,butratherhowreadyanindividualistoperformaparticulartask.Anygivenfollowercouldbelowonreadinesstoperformonetaskbuthighonreadinesstoperformadifferenttask.SituationalLeadershipModel3Whenfollowerreadinesslevelsandthefourcombinationsofleaderbehaviorsarecombined,foursegmentsemergealongacontinuum.Assessmentoffollowerreadinessalongthiscontinuumcanbefairlysubjective.Leadermayliketoseefollowersincreasetheirlevelofreadinessforparticulartasksbyimplementingaseriesofdevelopmentalinterventions

tohelpboostfollowerreadinesslevels.Interventionsaredesignedtohelpfollowersintheirdevelopment.SituationalLeadershipModelinthePerspectiveof

theLFSFrameworkTheonlysituationalconsiderationisknowledgeofthetask,andtheonlyfollowerfactorisreadiness.SituationalLeadershipusuallyappealstostudentsandpractitionersbecauseofitscommon-senseapproachandtheeaseofunderstanding.Usefulwaytogetleaderstothinkabouthowleadershipeffectivenessmaydependsomewhatonbeingflexiblewithdifferentsubordinates,notonactingthesamewaytowardthemall.Figure15.4:FactorsfromtheSituationalLeadershipModelandtheInteractionalFrameworkAccessthetextalternativeforslideimages.Fiedler’sContingencyModelMaintainsthatleadersareconsistentintheirbehavior.Suggeststhatleadereffectivenessisdeterminedbyselectingtherightkindofleaderforacertainsituationorchangingthesituationtofittheparticularleader’sstyle.Someleadersarebetterthanothersinsomesituationsbutlesseffectiveinothersituations.TheLeastPreferredCo-worker,orLPC,ScaleRequiresaleadertothinkofasingleindividualwithwhomheorshehashadthegreatestdifficultlyworkingandthendescribethatpersonintermsofbipolaradjectives,suchasfriendly-unfriendly,boring-interesting,andsincere-insincere.Ratingsarethenconvertedintoanumericalscore.Scorerepresentssomethingabouttheleader,notthespecificindividualtheleaderevaluated.Figure15.5:MotivationalHierarchiesforLow-

andHigh-LPCLeadersAccessthetextalternativeforslideimages.SituationalFavorability1Amountofcontroltheleaderhasoverthefollowers.Themorecontrolaleaderhasoverfollowers,themorefavorablethesituationis,atleastfromaleader’sperspective.Subelementsinsituationfavorability.Leader-memberrelations.Taskstructure.Positionpower.SituationalFavorability2Relativeweightsofthesubelements,takentogether,canbeusedtocreateacontinuumofsituationalfavorability.Whenusingthecontingencymodel,leadersarefirstaskedtorateitemsthatmeasurethestrengthofleader-memberrelations,thedegreeoftaskstructure,andtheirlevelofpositionpower.Ratingsarethenweightedandcombinedtodetermineanoveralllevelofsituationalfavorabilityfacingtheleader.Figure15.6:ContingencyModelOctantStructureforDeterminingSituationalFavorabilitySource:AdaptedfromT.R.Mitchell,C.M.Smyser,andS.E.Weed,“LocusofControl:SupervisionandWorkSatisfaction,”AcademyofManagementJournal18(1975),pp.623–30.Accessthetextalternativeforslideimages.Figure15.7:LeaderEffectivenessBasedontheContingencybetweenLeaderLPCScoreandSituationFavorabilityAccessthetextalternativeforslideimages.PrescriptionsoftheModelLeaderswilltrytosatisfyaprimarymotivationwhenfacedwithunfavorableormoderatelyfavorablesituationsandwillbehaveaccordingtotheirsecondarymotivationalstateonlywhenfacedwithhighlyfavorablesituations.Hierarchiesandtendencieswouldbedifficulttochangethroughtraining.Leadershiptrainingshouldstressonsituationalengineeringratherthanbehavioralflexibility.Organizationscouldbemoreeffectivebymatchingaleader’scharacteristicswithsituationaldemandsinsteadoftryingtochangealeader’sbehaviortofitthesituation.Figure15.8:FactorsfromFiedler’sContingency

TheoryandtheInteractionalFrameworkAccessthetextalternativeforslideimages.Path-GoalTheory1Underlyingmechanismdealswithexpectancy,acognitiveapproachtounderstandingmotivation,wherepeoplecalculate:Effort-to-performanceprobabilities.Performance-to-outcomeprobabilities.Assignedvalencesorvaluesofoutcomes.Assumptions:Effectiveleaderwill:Provideorensuretheavailabilityofvaluedrewardsforfollowers,goals,andthenhelpthemfindthebestwayofgettingthere(thepath).Helpthefollowersidentifyandremoveroadblocksandavoiddeadends.Provideemotionalsupportasneeded.Path-GoalTheory2Leader’sactionsshouldstrengthenfollowers’beliefsthat:Iftheyexertacertainlevelofeffort,theywillbemorelikelytoaccomplishatask.Iftheyaccomplishthetask,theywillbemorelikelytoachievesomevaluedoutcome.Leadersmayusevaryingstyleswithdifferentsubordinatesanddifferingstyleswiththesamesubordinatesindifferentsituations.Differentleaderbehaviorscanincreasefollowers’acceptanceoftheleader,enhancetheirlevelofsatisfaction,andraisetheirexpectationsthateffortwillresultineffectiveperformance,whichinturnwillleadtovaluedrewards.Path-GoalTheory3Followervariables.Satisfactionoffollowers.Followerswillactivelysupportaleaderiftheyviewtheleader’sactionsasawaytoincreasetheirownlevelsofsatisfaction.Followers’perceptionoftheirownabilitiesrelativetothetasktobeaccomplished.Situationalfactorsthatimpacttheeffectsofleaderbehavioronfollowerattitudesandbehaviorsincludethetask,theformalauthoritysystem,andtheprimaryworkgroup.Factorscanserveasanindependentmotivationalfactor,asaconstraintonthebehavioroffollowers,orasareward,andcanaffecttheimpactofvariousleaderbehaviors.TheFourLeaderBehaviorsofPath-GoalTheoryDirectiveleadership:

Includestellingthefollowerswhattheyareexpectedtodo,howtodoit,whenitistobedone,andhowtheirworkfitsinwiththeworkofothers.Supportiveleadership:

Supportiveleadershipbehaviorsincludehavingcourteousandfriendlyinteractions,expressinggenuineconcernforthefollowers’well-beingandindividualneeds,andremainingopenandapproachabletofollowers.Participativeleadership:

Leaderstendtoshareworkproblemswithfollowers;solicittheirsuggestions,concerns,andrecommendations;andweightheseinputsinthedecision-makingprocess.Achievement-orientedleadership:

Leadersexhibitingthesebehaviorswouldbeseenasbothdemandingandsupportingininteractionswiththeirfollowers.Figure15.9:InteractionbetweenFollowers’LocusofControlScoresandLeaderBehaviorinDecisionMakingSource:AdaptedfromT.R.Mitchell,C.M.Smyser,andS.E.Weed,“LocusofControl:SupervisionandWorkSatisfaction,”AcademyofManagementJournal18(1975),pp.623–30.Accessthetextalternativeforslideimages.Figure15.10:ExamplesofApplyingPath-GoalTheoryAccessthetextalternativeforslideimages.Figure15.11:FactorsfromPath-GoalTheory

andtheInteractionalFrameworkAccessthetextalternativeforslideimages.Path-GoalTheory:CriticismsandUsesCriticisms.Assumesthattheonlywaytoincreaseperformanceistoincreasefollowers’motivationlevels.Ignorestherolesleadersplayinselectingtalentedfollowers,buildingtheirskilllevelsthroughtraining,andredesigningtheirwork.Uses.Providesaconceptualframeworktoguideresearchersinidentifyingpotentiallyrelevantsituationalmoderatorvariables.Illustratesthat,asmodelsbecomemorecomplicated,theymaybemoreusefultoresearchersandlessappealingtopractitioners.SummaryContingencytheoriesofleadership.Leader-memberexchange.SituationalLeadershipmodel.Contingencymodel.Path-goaltheory.Allfourmodelsspecifythatleadersshouldmaketheirbehaviorscontingentoncertainaspectsofthefollowersorthesituationtoimproveleadershipeffectiveness.Implicitlyassumethatleaderscanaccuratelyassesskeyfollowerandsituationalfactors.Havemixedsupportinfieldsettingsbecausetheyarealllimitedinscope.EndofMainContentCopyright©2022McGraw-HillEducation.Allrightsreserved.NoreproductionordistributionwithoutthepriorwrittenconsentofMcGraw-HillEducation.AccessibilityContent:TextAlternativesforImagesTable15.1:TheCycleofLeadershipMaking-TextAlternativeReturntoparent-slidecontainingimages.Thefigureillustratesfivecharacteristics:relationship-buildingstage,reciprocity,timespanofreciprocity,leader–memberexchange,andincrementalinfluence.Eachcharacteristicmovesthroughthefollowingstagesovertime:stranger,acquaintance,andmaturity.Thecharacteristicoftherelationship-buildingstageisoneofrole-takinginthestrangerstage,role-makingintheacquaintancestage,androleroutinizationinthematuritystage.Thecharacteristicofreciprocityiscashandcarryinthestrangerstage,mixedintheacquaintancestage,andin-kindinthematuritystage.Thecharacteristicoftimespanofreciprocityisimmediateinthestrangerstage,somewhatdelayedintheacquaintancestage,andindefiniteinthematuritystage.Thecharacteristicofleader–memberexchangeislowinthestrangerstage,mediumintheacquaintancestage,andhighinthematuritystage.Thecharacteristicofincrementalinfluenceisnonexistentinthestrangerstage,limitedintheacquaintancestage,andalmostunlimitedinthematuritystage.Returntoparent-slidecontainingimages.Figure15.1:SituationalLeadership-TextAlternativeReturntoparent-slidecontainingimages.Thesituationalleadershipmodeldepictsthefourcombinationsoftaskandrelationshipbehaviorsinrelationtofollowerreadiness.Thefourcombinationsoftaskandrelationshipbehaviorsaredividedintoquadrantswithhighandlowsegments.Taskbehaviorinvolvesguidance,andrelationshipbehaviorissupportive.ThefourquadrantsarenamedS1,S2,S3,andS4.Thefourtasks,eachdepictedinaseparatequadrant,aredelegating,participating,selling,andtelling.Delegatingrequireslowtask,lowrelationshipbehavior.Participatingrequireshighrelationship,lowtaskbehavior.Sellingrequireshightask,highrelationshipbehavior;andtellingrequireshightask,lowrelationshipbehavior.Acurvedlineisdrawnthroughthequadrantstorepresenttheleadershipbehaviorthatwillbemostlikelyeffectiveforaparticularleveloffollowerreadiness.Levelsoffollowerreadinessaredepictedinatablebeneaththequadrants.Abovethetable,isacontinuumthatdepictsfollowerreadinessasincreasingfromrighttoleft.Therearefoursegmentsalongthiscontinuum:R1,R2,R3,andR4.R4representsfollowerswhoareableandwillingorconfidentandhaveahighlevelofreadiness.R3representsfollowerswhoareablebutunwillingorinsecureandhaveamoderatelevelofreadiness.R2representsfollowerswhoareunablebutwillingorconfidentandhaveamoderatelevelofreadiness.R1representsfollowerswhoareunableandunwillingorinsecureandhavealowlevelofreadiness.Returntoparent-slidecontainingimages.Figure15.4:FactorsfromtheSituationalLeadershipModelandtheInteractionalFramework-TextAlternativeReturntoparent-slidecontainingimages.ThethreeintersectingcirclesoftheVenndiagramrepresentfollowers,theleader,andthesituation.Thecirclerepresentingfollowerscontainscontentthatreads“whatisthefollowers’readiness?”Thecirclerepresentingthesituationreads“whatisthetasktobeaccomplished?”Thecirclerepresentingtheleadercontainscontentthatlistsfourtasks:telling,selling,participating,anddelegating.Theleadershipbehaviorsrequiredforeachtaskarehightask,lowrelationshipbehaviorfortelling;hightask,highrelationshipforselling;lowtask,highrelationshipforparticipating;andlowtask,lowrelationshipfordelegating.Further,leadersmaymakethedecisiontousedevelopmentalintervention.OutsidetheVenndiagramiscontentthatreads“outcomes:taskaccomplishment,increasedfollowerreadiness(ifdevelopmentalinterventionsused).”Returntoparent-slidecontainingimages.Figure15.5:MotivationalHierarchiesforLow-

andHigh-LPCLeaders-TextAlternativeReturntoparent-slidecontainingimages.Thetwotypesofleadersdepictedarehighleastpreferredcoworkerandlowleastpreferredcoworker.Lowleastpreferredcoworkerleadersaremotivatedprimarilybythetaskandthenbypeople.Highleastpreferredcoworkerleadersaremotivatedprimarilybypeopleandthenbythetask.Returntoparent-slidecontainingimages.Figure15.6:ContingencyModelOctantStructureforDeterminingSituationalFavorability-TextAlternativeReturntoparent-slidecontainingimages.Threeelementsofsituationalfavorabilityaredepicted:leader–memberrelations,taskstructure,andpositionpower.Acontinuum,movingfromlefttoright,ofoverallsituationalfavorabilityisdepictedabovethethreetasks.Belowtheelementsisaratingscale,oroctantsofsituationalfavorability,rangingfrom1(highlyfavorable)to8(veryunfavorable).Thehighestlevelsofsituationalfavorabilityoccurwhenleader–memberrelationsaregood,thetaskisstructured,andpositionpowerishigh.Thelowestlevelsofsituationalfavorabilityoccurwhentherearehighlevelsofpoorleader–memberrelations,thetaskisunstructured,andtheleaderdoesnothavethepowertorewardorpunishsubordinates.Returntoparent-slidecontainingimages.Figure15.7:LeaderEffectivenessBasedontheContingencybetweenLeaderLPCScoreandSituationFavorability-TextAlternativeReturntoparent-slidecontainingimages.Thex-axisofthegraphrepresentssituationalfavorabilityandacontinuumthatmovesfromhightolow.They-axisofthegraphrepresentsoverallgroupeffectivenessandacontinuumthatmovesfromlowtohigh.Twolinesonthegraphplottherelativeeffectivenessofalow-LPCleader,andahigh-LPCleader.Thetwolinesintersectattwopointsonthegraph.Belowthegraphisaratingscaledividedintooctants.Thedatafromthegraphshowsthatwhenthesituationalfavorabilityismoderate,orbetweenoctants4and7,thenthosegroupsledbyhigh-LPCleadershavehigheroverallgroupeffectiveness.Whenthesituationiseitherveryunfavorable,octant8,orhighlyfavorable,betweenoctants1and3,thenthosegroupslow-LPCleadershavehigheroverallgroupeffectiveness.Returntoparent-slidecontainingimages.Figure15.8:FactorsfromFiedler’sContingencyTheoryandtheInteractionalFramework-TextAlternativeReturntoparent-slidecontainingimages.ThethreeintersectingcirclesoftheVenndiagramrepresentfollowers,theleader,andthesituation.Theareaofinteractionbetweenfollowersandleadersisleader–memberrelations.TheelementthatconcernstheleadercomponentismotivationhierarchyasdeterminedbyLPCscore.Theelementsthatconcernthesituationcomponentaretaskstructureandpositionpower.Theoutcomeofthisframeworkiseffectiveorineffectivegroupperformance,basedonmatchormismatchbetweentheleaderandoverallfavorabilityoftheleadershipsituation.Returntoparent-slidecontainingimages.Figure15.9:InteractionbetweenFollowers’LocusofControlScoresandLeaderBehaviorinDecisionMaking-TextAlternativeReturntoparent-slidecontainingimages.Thex-axisofthegraphrepresentsleaderbehaviorindecision-makingandrangesfromdirectivetoparticipative.They-axisrepresentsfollowersatisfactionwiththeleaderandrangesfromlowtohigh.Twolinesonthegraphplotthesatisfactionofexternal-locus-of-controlfollo