中学生百科英语4

中学生百科英语4中学生百科英语4中学生百科英语4资料仅供参考文件编号：2022年4月中学生百科英语4版本号：A修改号：1页次：1.0审核：批准:发布日期：中学生百科英语4——Concepts&Comments1NavajoSandPainting2Ceramics3CavePaintings4Graffiti5TheUnitedNations6AmnestyInternational7UNICEF8TheOlympicMovement9Hawaii10Deserts11Antarctica12NationalParks13Satellites14Comets15MotorVehicles:TheProsandCons16NewPlants17UpinSmoke18Memory19Obesity:TheNewEpidemic20CanFashionBeHazardoustoYourHealth?

1NavajoSandPaintingMorethan500yearsagotheancestorsoftheNavajopeopleleftthecoldnorthernregionthatisnowpartofwesternCanadaandAlaskaandmigratedsouthtowhatisnowthesouthwesternpartoftheUnitedStates.TheareainwhichtheNavajofinallysettledismainlydesert.Itisaharshenvironmentthatgetslittlerain.Theanimalsandplantsthatlivetherehavehadtoadaptinordertosurviveintheunforgivingclimateandlandscape.WhentheNavajoarrivedinthearea,theytoohadtoadapttotheharshdesertconditionsinordertosurvive.Theyhadtolearntomakeuseofthenaturalresourcesintheirenvironmenttoprovidefortheirshelter,food,andothernecessities.Overtime,theNavajobecamefamousforthethingstheywereabletocreatefromthenaturalresourcesathand.OneofthemostfamousNavajocreationsiscalledsandpainting.Mostpeoplethinkofapaintingasaworkofart.FortheNavajo,however,sandpaintingisnotartwork.Rather,sandpaintingisanimportantpartofareligiousceremony.Themakingofasandpaintingispartofahealingceremonythatissupposedtorestorethehealthandwell-beingofasickperson.TheonlypeoplewhoareallowedtocreatesandpaintingsarespeciallytrainedNavajo"singers''or"medicinemen"andtheirassistants.ANavajosingerbeginstheprocessofcreatingasandpaintingbycollectingdifferentrocks.Therocksarethencrushedandgroundintosand.Traditionally,aNavajosingerandhisassistantsmakethesandpaintingonthefloorofasmallNavajohousecalledahogan.Workingunderthedirectionofthesinger,theassistantstakecoloredsandintheirhandsanddripitonthefloorinaline.Usingdifferentcolors,theyslowlymakeapicture.ThesizeofNavajosandpaintingsvaries.Asmallsandpaintingislessthanameterwide,whilealargesandpaintingcanbeover6meterswide.Thenumberofpeopleassistingthesingeralsovaries.Asmallsandpaintingmayhave2or3peopleworkingonitandtakeanhourtocomplete,whilealargepaintingmayrequire10menandwomenandtakealldaytofinish.Duringthehealingceremony,thesickpersonmovesontothecompletedsandpainting.Thesickpersonsitsdirectlyonthesandpaintingsothatitcanserveasapathwayforevilorillnesstoleavetheperson'sbodyandforgoodnessorhealthtoreturntoit.ThisexplainswhytheNavajowordforsandpaintingmeans"placewherethegodscomeandgo."Afterthesickpersonhasbeentreated,othervisitorsmaygouptothepaintinganddabsomeofthesandonthemselvessothatthesandpaintingbringshealthandwell-beingintotheirlivestoo.Attheendofthehealingceremony,itisimperativethatthesandpaintingbedestroyed.TheNavajobelievethatsomethingterriblewillhappeniftheyfailtodestroyasandpaintingproperly.So,inthereverseoftheorderinwhichitwasmade,thesingersweepsthepaintingawayandreturnsthesandtothelandscape.Navajosingersmaketheirsandpaintingsfrommemory,andtheyalwaysmakethesamepicturesinexactlythesameway.Therearebetween600and1,000differentpicturesforsandpaintings.Atonepointinhistory,therewasonesingerforevery150Navajos.Today,theratioismuchlower,withonesingerforroughlyevery2,200people.Onereasonforthischangeistheextensivetrainingrequiredtoperformthedutiesofasinger;itcantakeaslongas14yearstotrainsomeone.Asecondreasonforthechangeinratioisthatasingercantrainonlyonestudentatatime.Thisneedforone-on-onetraininghaslimitedthenumberofstudentswhocanbetrained.WhileatruesandpaintingispartofaNavajoceremonyandlastsforonlyashorttime,sandpaintingasapermanentartformhasalsodeveloped.Thefirstpermanentsandpaintingsappearedintheearly1900s.Theseearlypiecesofartwereactuallytapestriesratherthanpaintingsmadewithsand.ThetapestrieswerewovenbyarespectedNavajosingernamedHosteenKlah,whocopiedthepicturesfromsandpaintings.However,toavoidcausingsomethingterribletohappenbymakingapermanentpicture,Klahnevermadethepictureexactlythesameastheoriginal.HewouldnotuseaNavajopicturewithoutchangingitalittle.Beforelong,touristsintheareasawKlah'sweavingsandaskedtobuythem.Klahfinallyagreedtoselloneofhisweavingsifthebuyerpromisednevertoputitonthefloororwalkonit.Inthe1930s,theNavajobegancreatinganothertypeofpermanentsandpainting.Theymadethesepermanentpaintingsbyslowlydrippingcoloredsandontoglue-coveredboards.Today,thesesandpaintingsareconsideredtobeworksofartratherthanpartofareligiousceremony.Theyaremadebyartistsratherthansingers,andtheyappearinartshowsandinartmuseums.Thereisstillcontroversyoverthesellingofsandpaintings.SomeNavajossaythatsandpaintingsarepartoftheirreligionandshouldnotbesold.Butothersbelievethattheartists'changestothepicturesprotecttheirreligiouspower.(913words)2CeramicsThemostancientartifactsinourpossessiontodayweremadeoutofclaymanythousandsofyearsago.Infact,muchofwhatwenowknowaboutculturesofthepastwelearnedbystudyingpiecesoftheirclaydishesandclayfigures.Veryfewthingsmadefromothermaterialshavesurvivedtotellusabouttheculturesthatproducedthem.ObjectsmadefromclaycametobecalledceramicsfromtheGreekwordceramics,whichmeans"potter'sclay."Ceramicsaredividedintomanydifferentkindsbasedonthetypeofclayusedandhowtheclayisfired.Themostcommontypesofceramicsarepottery,stoneware,andporcelain.Tomakepottery,forexample,clayisfiredatabout500°C.Clayfiredatabout1200°Cbecomesstoneware.Whenwhiteclayisfiredatanevenhighertemperature,itbecomesporcelain.Bakingtheclayatsuchhightemperaturesactuallychangesthestructureoftheclaysothatitbecomespermanentlyhardandalmostindestructible.Theartofmakingpotterydevelopedinmanyplacesaroundtheworld.Someoftheearliestpiecesofpotterywereprobablymadewhenpeopletriedtostrengthenbasketswovenofgrassandsticks.SomearcheologiststhinkthatearlypottersinChinamayhavecoveredtheinsideofwovenbasketswithclaysothatthebasketswouldholdwater.Whenthebasketswereeitherplacedonafireorlefttherebymistake,thefireburnedthegrassawayandturnedthebasketsintohard,durablepots.Earlypottersindifferentpartsoftheworldfoundinterestingwaystodecoratetheirworktomakeitmoreattractive.Theyscratchedthesurfaceofthesoftclaytomakedecorativelinesanddesigns.Theyalsousedglazes,whichareaspecialkindofpaint,tomakeclayobjectssmooth,shiny,andcolorful.TheEgyptianswerealreadydecoratingtheirpotterywithcolorsanddesignsabout5,000yearsago.SimilarstylesbegantospreadthroughouttheMediterranean,region.By3,500yearsago,thepeopleoftheGreekislandofCretewereproducingtheirownpotterydecoratedwithdesignsandimagesofanimals.ThesedesignssurvivedthousandsofyearsandcanstillbeseeninexamplesofancientGreekart.ThepotterymakersofChinawerethefirsttolearntomakeporcelain,whichisthefinestandmostfragiletypeofpottery.Ifyouholdapieceofporcelainupintheair,lightwillshinethroughit.TheChineseexportedporcelaintoEurope,whereitbecamehighlyvalued.Formanyyears,EuropeanpotterstriedtocopyChineseporcelain,butitwasnotuntil1710thataGermanscientistfinallylearnedhowtomakeit.Bytheendofthe18thcentury,otherEuropeancountrieswerealsoproducingporcelain,andtodayFranceandEnglandproducesomeofthefinestporcelainintheworld.Therearedifferentwaystoformaclaydishorbowl.Theeasiestmethodistosimplyhollowoutaclayball,usingyourhands.Anothersimplemethodistorolltheclayintoalong"rope"andthenwinditintoashape.Athirdmethodistospreadtheclayaroundsomething.Theinventionofthepotter'swheelmorethan5,000yearsagointroducedanentirelynewwaytoformaclayobject.Withthismethod,thepotterplacessomeclayinthecenterofaround,flatwheelthatcanturnveryfast.Asthewheelturns,thepotteruseshisorherhandstoshapetheclay.Usingapotter'swheelmakesitpossibletoformclayobjectsthataresmootherandmoreuniformlyround.Aclayobjectisusuallydecoratedfirstandthenbaked.Bakingtheclayatveryhightemperaturesmakesithardandstrong.Firingalsomakestheglazesticktothepottery.Whenthefiringiscompleted,thepottermustcarefullyremovethepotteryfromtheovenandletitcoolslowly.Ifitcoolstooquickly,itcouldcrackandbreak.Overtheyears,clayobjectshaveservedmanypurposes.Obviously,oneofthemostcommonusesofpotteryisforhouseholddishes.Becausepotteryisstrongandwaterproof,itmakesanexcellentdishtorcarrying,storing,cooking,andservingfood.Firedclayhasalsobeenusedtomakebricksforbuildinghousesandtomaketilestorcoveringfloors.Ceramicsarealsoincrediblyheatresistant,sotheycanbeusedwheremetalwouldmeltorbecomeweak.Today,ceramicsareimportantinindustryandengineering.Onerarelydiscusseduseofceramicsisforburialceremonies.Insomecultures,specialceramicobjectswereburiedalongwiththedeadperson.Archeologiststhinktheseceramicobjectsweremadeespeciallyforburialceremoniesbecausetheirdecorationiselaborate.Insomecultures,partsofadeadperson'sbodywereremoved,placedinceramicvases,andthenburiedwiththebody.Ceramicobjectsshowingadeadperson'stitleandofficesheldhavealsobeenfoundatburialsites.Somepeoplerefusetoconsiderthemakingofceramicsanartformbecausetheobjectscreatedaresooftenusefulthings.Atthesametime,however,manyofthoseusefulceramicthingsareextremelyvaluable.Someareevenkeptinmuseums.InthecountryofIran,ancientpotteryisconsideredtobesovaluabletotheculturethatthereareharshpunishmentsforanyonewhotriestotakeceramicartifactsoutofthecountry.Thepunishmentsrangefrompayingmoneytotimeinjail.Thatiscertainlyaclearindicationthatceramicsarevaluedbymanypeople.(925words)3CavePaintingsInDecember1994,threeamateurcaveexplorers—Jean-MarieChauvet,ElietteBrunelDeschamps,andChristianHillaire—wereinvestigatinganareainsoutheasternFrance.OnDecember18,theynoticedthehalf-coveredentrancetoanunnamedcave.Althoughitdidn'tlooklikeaveryinterestingcave,ElietteDeschampspushedherselfthroughthesmallopening.Tohersurprise,shesawahugecavebelow.Thethreeexplorersreturnedtotheirtrucktogetaladder,andeventhoughitwasalreadydark,theydecidedtogodownintothecave.Oncethere,theydiscoveredavastnetworkofrooms.Onthewallsweresomeofthemostbeautifulpaintingstheyhadeverseen.ThecavediscoveredonDecember18,1994,isnowcalledChauvetCave,afteroneoftheamateurexplorerswhodiscoveredit.Archeologistswhoinspectedthecavepaintingssoonaftertheywerediscoveredestimatedthatthepaintingswereabout17,000yearsold.Afewmonthslater,however,testsshowedthatthreeoftheanimalsinthepaintingswereatleast31,000yearsold.ThatmeantthepaintingsinChauvetCaveweretheoldestexistingcavepaintingsintheworld.Therearemorethan300paintingsinChauvetCave.Seventy-threeofthepaintingsareofatypeoflionthatisnowextinct.Otherpaintingsshowpanthers,horses,mammoths,woolyrhinoceros,andotheranimals.Therearealsotracingsofhumanhandsaswellassymbolssuchasdotsformingasemicircle.Manyofthepaintingsareextraordinarilydetailed.Forinstance,severalofthepicturesoflionsshowthevariedpatternsofwhiskerspotsthatbiologiststodayusetoidentifyindividualanimals.Theartistsusedthenaturalcurvesofthecavewallstomaketheanimalslookreal.Theyusedshadingandcolor(black,red,andyellow)toadddepthtotheirpaintings.WhentheFrencharcheologistJeanClotteswasaskedaboutthecavepaintings,hesaid,"IwasdeeplymovedwhenIsawthepaintings.They'reasgoodasanyartmadeanywhereintheworld."ThepaintingsinChauvetCaveweremostlikelydonebyanumberofartists.Someofthepaintingsareextraordinarilysophisticated.Withsimplelinesandshading,theartistscreatedexquisitepicturesofwildanimalsinaction.Someofthepaintings,however,arestiffandstylized,andothersarequiteroughandamateurish.Somearcheologistshavesuggestedthatthepaintersworkedwithassistants.Perhapstheassistantsmadetheroughpaintingswhiletryingtocopytheirteachers'paintings.WhenthepaintingsinChauvetCavewerediscovered,theywereperfectlypreservedonthestonewalls.NosunlighthadenteredthecavefromthetimethepaintingsweremadeuntilChauvetandhisfriendsfoundthem.Unfortunately,thesimpleactofexposingpaintingssothatpeoplecanseethemcancausethepaintingstodisappear.Thishappenedtothepaintingsinanothercave—withinsixmonthsoftheopeningofthecavethepaintingshadvanished.Nowscientistsknowthattheymustentercavescarefullyandpreventlightandairfromdamagingthepictures.Today,ChauvetCaveisclosedtothepublic,becauseeventhebreathingofalargenumberofpeoplecoulddamagethepaintings.PerhapsthemostinterestingthingaboutChauvetCaveisthatithasforcedarcheologiststochangetheirideasaboutart.Formanyyears,archeologistsbelievedthatittookthousandsofyearsforhumanstograduallylearnhowtodrawandpaint.ChauvetCaveshowedthatthereweregreatartists30,000yearsago.JeanClottessummeditup,saying,"Ourancestorsdidnotneedmillenniaoftrialanderrortoachievegreatart.Artisticcapacitywasoneofthecomponentsofourspeciesprobablyrightfromthestart."ChauvetCaveisonlyoneofmanycavesintheworldthathavebeendecoratedbyancientpaintings.InAustralia,SouthAfrica,Chinaandmanyotherplaces,extraordinaryancientworksofarthavebeenfound.Whydidprehistoricpeoplemakethesepaintings

Perhapstheybelievedthatpaintingtheanimalsgavetheartistsspecialstrengthorpowers.Perhapsthepaintingswerepartofaceremony,orperhapstheywerethoughttoholdsomesortofmagic.Theanswertothisquestionwillprobablyalwaysremainamystery.(700words)4GraffitiAquietstreet,ablankwall,acanofspraypaintandayoungpersongoestoworkwritinggraffiti.Thetermgraffitimeanswordsordrawingsscratchedorpaintedonawall.ThewordcomesfromtheGreektermgraphein,whichmeans"towrite."Peoplehavebeenwritinggraffitionwallsforthousandsofyears,buttodaysomepeoplebelievethatcertaintypesofgraffitihaveevolvedintoagenuineartform.ManyoftheoldestexistingexamplesofgraffitiarefromtheancientcityofPompeiionthewesterncoastofItaly.Intheyear79,PompeiiwasdestroyedbytheeruptionofMt.Vesuvius.Ashfromthevolcanoburiedthecity,preservingmuchofitforustoseetoday.CarvedonthewallsofPompeiiaremanyexamplesofgraffiti.Someofthegraffitiaredeclarationsoflove,whileothersareinsults.Someofthegraffitiarecomplaintsaboutstoreownerswhowerecheatingpeople,whileothersarepoliticalstatementsorroughdrawingsofpeople.Althoughthemessagesdiffer,thegraffitihaveoneimportantthingincommon;theywereallwrittenwithoutthepermissionoftheownerofthewall.Forhistorianshowever,thesegraffitiaresomeofthetowavailablesourcesofinformationaboutthelivesofthecommonpeopleofPompeiiandtheireverydayconcerns.Whilepeoplehavebeenwritinggraffitionwallsforthousandsofyears,inthe1960sanewtypeofgraffitistartedappearingoncitywallsintheUnitedStates.Somepeoplecalledthistypeofgraffiti"ganggraffiti"becauseitwasmadebygangmemberstoidentifytheirterritory.Ganggraffiticonsistedsimplyofthegang'sname,or"tag";itspurposewastowarnothergangstostayaway.Agang'staghadtobedistinctiveandeasytomakequicklybutitwasnotmeanttobeartistic.Bytheendofthe1970s,thepracticeof"tagging"wasnolongermainlyagangactivity.Peoplewhohadnoconnectiontoagangwerewritingtheirnamesonflatsurfacesallaroundthecity.Theirgoalwastobecomefamousbygettingtheirnameonasmanysurfacesaspossible.However,asmoreandmorepeoplegotinvolvedintagging,itbecameincreasinglydifficultforwriterstogetattention.Thisledsomewriterstobeginexperimentingwithwaystomaketheirtagsstandout.Somestartedmakingtheirtagsbiggerandbolder,whileotherscombinedletterswithpictures.Astagsbecameincreasinglyelaborate,individualstylescouldbeidentified.Fromtagging,graffitidevelopedintosomethingcalledgraffitiart,oraerosolart.Graffitiartistscombinedtheiruniqueletterstyleswithpicturestocreatelargepaintingsthatcoveredanentirewallortheentiresideofasubwaycar.Duringthe1970sand1980sthesubwaycarsofNewYorkbecameamovingmuseumofartforgraffitiartists.Thepurposeofgraffitiart,unlikethatofganggraffiti,isself-expressionandcreativity.Accordingtoonegraffitiartist,"Creatinggraffitiisanart,andjustlikeanyotherart,itrequirestonsofpracticeandwork."Today,mostgraffitiartismadewithspraypaint,althoughsomeartistsalsousebrushesandmarkers.Forgraffitiartists,justaboutanythingcanserveasasurfacefortheirartwork,evenrocks,roads,andbillboards.Ofcoursenoteveryonelikesorapprovesofthegraffitioncitywalls.Infact,mostpeoplethinkofcreatinggraffitiasvandalismratherthanart.Forthemajorityofpeople,doinggraffitiwithoutsomeone'spermissionisnotfreedomofexpression;itisarrogance.Andthepresenceofgraffitiintheirneighborhoodsmakesmanypeoplefeellesssafe.Seeinggraffitiallaroundthemmakesmanypeoplefeelthatdangerisjustaroundthecorner.Inthe1980s,manycitiesstartedtakingactionagainstgraffiti.ThecityofNewYork,forexample,startedacampaigntogetridofgraffitionsubwaycars.Bypaintingoverthegraffitisoonaftertheyweremade,thecitywasabletodiscouragegraffitiartistsfromdecoratingthesubwaycars.Then,in1987,anewtypeorpaint-resistantsubwaycarbecameavailable,makingitimpossibleforgraffitiartiststopaintonthecars.ThecityofLosAngelesboughtseveral"paintstoresonwheels"tocombatgraffiti.Thesevanstraveledaroundthecitylookingforgraffitiandpaintingoverthemimmediately.Thecity'sgoalwastodiscouragegraffitiartistsbypaintingovertheirgraffitiwithin24hours.Othercitieshaveusedprotectivecoatingsandspecialbuildingmaterialstopreventpeoplefromwritinggraffiti.Althoughthesesolutionshavebeeneffective,theyareveryexpensive.DoesthismeantheendofgraffitiNotquite.Insomecountries,suchasJapan,England,andtheUnitedStates,graffitiartistsareallowedtodotheirworkonspeciallydesignatedwallsinacity.Graffitiartisshowninmuseums,andinAustralia,well-knowncompaniessponsorgraffiticompetitions.Therearealsohundredsofwebsitesdealingwithgraffitiart,aswellasmanybooksandinstructionalvideos.And,ofcourse,therearestillpeoplewhowilltrytoleavetheirmarkonsomeoneelse'swall.(855words)5TheUnitedNationsIn1945delegatesfrom50countriesmetinSanFrancisco,California,tomakeplansforanorganizationcalledtheUnitedNations.WorldWarIIhadjustended,millionsofpeoplehaddied,andtherewasdestructioneverywhere.Peoplehopedtheycouldbuildafutureofworldpeacethroughthisneworganization.ThecharteroftheUnitedNations(UN)statesthefourmaingoalsandpurposesoftheorganization.Theyare1.Toworktogetherforinternationalpeaceandtosolveinternationalproblems;2.Todevelopfriendlyrelationsamongnations;3.Toworktogetherforhumanrightsforeveryoneofallraces,religions,languages,andofbothsexes;and4.Tobuildacenterwherenationscanworktogetherforthesegoals.TheUnitedNationshasgrownfromanorganizationof51countriesin1945to191nationsin2004.Today,almosteverycountryintheworldisamemberoftheUN.EachcountrythatjoinstheUnitedNationssignsanagreementthatsays:1.Allmembersareequal.2.Allmemberspromisetosolveinternationalproblemsinapeacefulway.3.Nomemberwilluseforceagainstanothermember.4.AllmemberswillhelptheUNinitsactions.5.TheUNwillnottrytosolveproblemswithincountriesexcepttoenforceinternationalpeace.TheheadquartersoftheUnitedNationsisinNewYorkCity.ThisiswheretheGeneralAssembly,themainbodyoftheUnitedNations,meetseveryyearfromSeptembertoDecember.TheGeneralAssemblyismadeupofrepresentativesfromeachmembercountry,whodiscussissuesrelatedtopeaceandsecurityandmakerecommendations.However,theGeneralAssemblydoesnothavethepowertoenforceitsrecommendations.AsecondUNbody,the15-memberSecurityCouncilhasthemainresponsibilityformaintaininginternationalpeace.Fivemembers—Britain,China,France,theRussianFederation,andtheUnitedStates—arepermanentmembersoftheSecurityCouncil.Theremaining10membersareelectedbytheGeneralAssemblyandservetwo-yearterms.AthirdorganoftheUN,theEconomicandSocialCouncil,isresponsibleforthesocialandeconomicworkoftheUN.Overtheyears,theUnitedNationshashadsomesuccessesinitsroleofworldpeacemaker.Ithasnegotiated172peacefulsettlementsandhelpedtoendtwowars.Ithasalsohelpedtoslowthespreadofnuclearweaponsbyinspectingnuclearfacilitiesin90countries.Asapeacekeeper,theUNhasalsohadanumberofsuccesses.Since1945,UNpeacekeepingforceshavebeeninvolvedin56missions.Theyhavesupervisedceasefiresandthewithdrawaloftroops,andtheyhavemonitoredelections.Overtheyears,roughly130nationshaveparticipatedinthepeacekeepingmissions.In1988,theUNpeacekeepingforcesreceivedtheNobelPeacePrize.Unfortunately,membernationshavebeenunwillingtogiveUNpeacekeepingforcestheindependenceandfinancialsupporttheyneedtobeevenmoreeffective.InevaluatingthesuccessoftheUN,itisimportanttokeepinmindthattheorganizationhasmanyfunctionsinadditiontopreventingorendingwars.TheUnitedNationsisreallya"family"ofrelatedorganizations,whichareworkingtoprovideabetterlifeforpeopleeverywhere.OnepartoftheUNfamilyisUNICEF,anorganizationthatprovidesfood,medicalcare,andmanyotherservicestopoorchildrenwherevertheylive.ThankstotheeffortsofUNICEF,theimmunizationrateofchildrenindevelopingcountrieshasjumpedfrom5percentin1974tomorethan80percenttoday.AnotherpartoftheUNfamilyistheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO),whichdevelopsmedicalprogramsforpeopleallovertheworld.In1980,WHOannouncedthat,after13yearsofwork,ithadsucceededinriddingtheworldofthediseasesmallpox.TosupportitshumanitarianeffortstheUNemploysthousandsofpeopleallaroundtheworld.Theyworkasplannerstoincreaseproductioninfarmingandindustry.Theyprovidemedicalservices,improveeducationprograms,andspreadscientificinformation.Theydevelopprogramsthatprovidejobsandbetterlivingconditions.Theyalsohelpcountriescontroltheirpopulationgrowth.TheUnitedNationsalsoorganizeslargeinternationalconferences,wherepeoplemeettodiscussimportantworldissues.Oneconferencewasabouttheusesandownershipofoceans;anotherwasaboutwomen.TheUnitedNationsalsodesignatesaspecificproblemforpeopletofocusoneachyear.Forexample,theyear2003wasdeclaredtheInternationalYearofFreshWater.Duringthesespecialyears,peopleworktogethertofindsolutionstothedesignatedproblems.ManypeoplebelievethatthebestwayfortheUnitedNationstoworkforworldpeaceisthroughitshumanitarianactivities.Theyhopethatpromotingcontactandcommunicationamongpeoplewillmakewarslesslikely.(791words)6AmnestyInternationalIn1960,twostudentsinPortugalweresentencedtosevenyearsinprison.ThereasonTheyhadmadecriticalremarksabouttheirgovernment.InEngland,alawyerbythenameofPeterBenensonreadaboutthisincidentanddecidedhehadtodosomething.Benensonwroteanewspaperarticlecalled"TheForgottenPrisoners."Init,hetoldaboutsixpeopleinsixdifferentcountrieswhowereinprisonbecauseoftheirbeliefs.Inthenewspaperarticle,Benensonaskedreaderstojoinhiminayear-longcampaignagainsttheimprisonmentofpeoplefortheirpoliticalorreligiousbeliefs.ItwasBenenson'shopethatpeoplewouldwriteletterstogovernmentofficialscallingforthereleaseoftheseprisoners.Inthefirstmonthsofthecampaign,peoplesentthousandsoflettersdemandingthereleaseoftheprisoners.Bytheendof1961,thecampaignhaddevelopedintoapermanentinternationalorganizationcalledAmnestyInternational,anditwasalreadyworkingonthecasesof210prisoners.AmnestyInternational'sprimarygoalistoobtainthereleaseof"prisonersofconscience."Thesearepeoplewhohavebeenimprisonedfortheirbeliefs;theyhaveneitherusedviolencethemselvesnorencouragedanyoneelsetouseviolence.ToniAmbatielos,oneofthesixprisonersofconsciencewhomBenensonwroteaboutin1961,wasputinprisonforhistradeunionactivities.Anotheroneoftheprisoners,Dr.AgostinoNeto,wasjailedfortryingtoimprovehealthcareinhiscountry.Inthe1960s,manyAmnestymembersformedsmallgroupsto"adopt"aprisonerofconscience.Whenagroupadoptedaprisonerofconscience,itconcentratedonhelpingthatspecificprisoner.Memberso